.    GIFT   OF 
MICHAEL  REESE 


^ 


HANDBOOK   OF 

DOMESTIC    SCIENCE    AND 
HOU^HOLD  ARTS 


FOR    USE    IN 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS 

A  MANUAL  FOR   TEACHERS 


WITH  A  PREFACE   BY 
MRS.   ELLEN   H.   RICHARDS 

OF  THE  MASSACHUSETTS   INSTITUTE   OF  TECHNOLOGY 


WITH  CHAPTERS  CONTRIBUTED  BY  OTHER    WELL 
KNOWN  SPECIALISTS 

EDITED  BY 

LUCY  LANGDON  WILLIAMS  WILSON,  PH.D. 

OF  THE  PHILADELPHIA-KORMAL  SCHOOL 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 

1900 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1900, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Nortooofc  $reBS 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  tt  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


1  Till  by  experience  taught  the  mind  shall  learn 
That,  not  to  know  at  large  of  things  remote 
From  use,  obscure  and  subtle,  but  to  know 
That  which  before  us  lies  in  daily  life, 
Is  the  prime  wisdom." 

—JOHN  MILTON. 


83047 


PREFACE 

ACCORDING  to  a  prevalent  theory  of  education,  the  child 
acquaints  himself  with  the  various  objects  of  his  environ 
ment  in  order  to  have  a  basis  of  choice  in  his  after  life  as 
well  as  to  develope  his  observing  faculties.  The  knowledge 
which  he  consciously  or  unconsciously  gains  in  his  early 
years  remains  indelible,  as  do  the  letters  lightly  cut  in  the 
bark  of  a  young  sapling,  which  may  be  read  even  more 
distinctly  in  the  grown  tree. 

Owing  to  the  rapid  changes  in  environment,  —  economic, 
industrial,  mechanical,  and  social,  —  many  a  teacher  finds 
herself  at  a  loss  in  trying  to  aid  her  pupils  to  find  their 
place  in  a  world  which  is  almost  as  new  to  her  as  to  them. 
Where  everything  is  in  a  more  or  less  plastic  condition, 
firm  foothold  is  not  possible,  and  the  already  overworked 
teacher  is  not  able  to  search  out  the  truth  from  the  multi- 
tude of  books,  to  understand  the  new  processes,  to  keep  up 
with  the  daily  inventions. 

To  the  child's  endless  "Why?"  and  "How?"  she  must 
turn  a  deaf  ear,  or  she  must  "  work  up  "  the  various  subjects 
from  newspaper  or  magazine  articles  based  on  encyclopae- 
dias, which  are  admirable  epitomes  of  past  and  gone  history, 
but  most  misleading  and  insufficient  as  to  growing  science. 

This  little  book  is  an  endeavor  on  the  part  of  the  several 
experienced  teachers  to  put  into  a  form  helpful  to  others 
that  which  they  themselves  have  gathered  with  much  labor. 
The  topics  relate  to  that  routine  of  daily  life  which  influ- 


Vlll  PREFACE 

ences  every  child  for  good  or  ill  throughout  its  career,  and 
which  may  be  beneficial  in  proportion  as  it  is  understood 
and  controlled. 

Objection  has  been  made  to  taking  the  time  of  the  school 
for  those  things  which  the  home  should  teach.  If  they  were 
taught  in  the  home,  the  objection  would  be  valid;  but, 
with  the  best  will  in  the  world,  how  can  the  mother,  any 
more  than  the  teacher,  keep  abreast  of  the  revolutions  in 
social  habits  which  are  now  taking  place  ?  That  she  does 
not  do  so  the  present  chaotic  and  unscientific  condition  of 
the  household  amply  testifies.  To  interest  the  pupils  of 
school  age  in  the  various  operations  of  the  daily  life  is  to 
give  them  a  safeguard  for  health  and  morality  which  will 
be  of  lasting  benefit  in  the  homes  of  rich  and  poor  alike. 

Although  it  is  probable  that  no  knowledge  which  could 
be  gained  in  school  would  have  a  more  profound  effect  on 
national  wealth  or  on  human  happiness,  yet  it  is  evident 
that  these  teachers  do  not  regard  the  work  outlined  in  the 
following  pages  so  much  from  the  point  of  view  of  informa- 
tion as  from  that  of  education,  that  education  which  should 
be  a  development  of  the  child's  power  over  his  environment, 
and  over  his  own  efficiency  as  a  human  being. 

ELLEN  H.  RICHARDS. 

MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY, 
September,  1899. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 
SEPTEMBER 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

THE  HOUSE  BEAUTIFUL,  by  May  Haggenbotham,  late  Di- 
rector of  Domestic  Science  and  Art  Courses  at  Drexel 
Institute,    Philadelphia,    sometime    Assistant    Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Schools,  Philadelphia   ....  1 
I.     Construction  of  the  House         .        .        .  5 

II.     The  Vestibule 7 

IH.     The  Hall 10 

IV.     The  Dining  Room 13 

V.     The  Living  Room 14 

VI.     The  Bedrooms 16 

VII.     The  Bath-room .        .        .        .        .        .        .17 

VIII.     The  Kitchen       ....        .        .        .  18 

IX.    Making  the  Best  of  it 20 

X.    The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Ornament     .        .        .22 

OCTOBER 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  KITCHEN,  by  Abby  Lillian  Marlatt,  M.Sc.,  late  Professor 
of  Domestic  Science  in  the  Utah  Agricultural  College, 
now  Teacher  of  Domestic  Science  in  the  Manual  Train- 
ing High  School,  Providence,  Rhode  Island  ...  27 

Bibliography 29 

Equipment 29 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


Section  I.     Fire     . 32 

Bibliography 32 

Heat 32 

Combustion         . 34 

Fuel .  39 

The  Range 47 

Section  II.     Cleanliness         .        .        .        .      ._,.  "     .  55 

Bibliography 55 

Chemistry  of  Cleaning       .        .        .        .  •     .        .  56 

Iron _•.-,'•  56 

Brass  and  Copper    .        .        .        .        ..."-.  56 

Tin .        .  •-:    ,  56 

Zinc,  Aluminium,  Nickel,  Silver    .         .        .        .  56 

Glass ,  .        .'       .  57 

Porcelain •'".-•  57 

Granite  and  Enamelled  Ware         ....  57 

Grease 57 

Care  of  the  Sink         .        .        .        .        ..;      .  •/   :-  58 

Traps .'..        .58 

Antiseptics,  Disinfectants,  Deodorants  .       -.       -;.  59 

Experiments .7         60-63 


CHAPTER  III 
ADVANCED   COURSE 

STARCHY  FOODS,  AND  HOW  TO  COOK  THEM,  by  Abby  Lillian 
Marlatt,  M.Sc.,  late  Professor  of  Domestic  Science  in 
Utah  Agricultural  College,  now  Teacher  of  Domestic 
Science  in  the  Manual  Training  High  School,  Provi- 
dence, Rhode  Island 64 

Starch 64 

Recipes  ..........      68 

Riced  Potatoes 68 

Escalloped  Potatoes 69 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS  XI 

PAGE 

Transformation  of  Starch  into  Soluble  Compounds      .  69 

History  of  Sauces 69 

Roux  (Brown  Sauce) 72 

White  Sauce 73 

Macaroni        .........  73 

Additional  Work  in  Sauces   ......  75 

Cabbage  au  Gratin 76 

Rice 76 

Recipes 78 

Starch  as  a  Thickening  Agent 79 

Recipes 80 

Potato  Soup 80 

Chocolate  Cream  Pudding 80 

Vanilla  Sauce 81 

Tapioca,  Arrowroot,  Sago 81 

Corn    ...........  83 

Potatoes 87 

Recipes 89 

Transformation  of  Starch   into  more   Soluble   Com- 
pounds        .........  90 

Starchy  Foods  for  the  Sick 92 

Bibliography .93 


NOVEMBER 

CHAPTER  IV 

FOODS,  by  Mrs.  L.  L.  W.  Wilson,  Ph.D.,  of  the  Philadelphia 

Normal  School 95 

Bibliography 97 

Milk 98 

Protein 102 

Carbohydrates  (Sugars,  Starch,  etc.)     ....  106 
Hydrocarbons  (Fats  and  Oils)       .         .        .         .         .106 


Xll  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Inorganic  Food  Materials 107 

Salt 107 

Water 108 

Oxygen       .        .        . 110 


DECEMBER 

CHAPTER  V 

FOODS  (Continued),  by  Mrs.  L.  L.  W.  Wilson,  Ph.D.,  of  the 

Philadelphia  Normal  School 113 

Food  Values 117 

Dietaries 119 

Food  Economy       ........     122 

DRINKS 129 

Tea .129 

Coffee     .        .        .        . .134 

Cocoa 139 

Chocolate       .....  141 


CHAPTER  VI 

ADVANCED  COURSE,  by  Mrs.  L.  L.  W.  Wilson,  Ph.D.,  of  the 

Philadelphia  Normal  School 142 

Proteids,  and  how  to  cook  them 142 

Eggs 143 

Comparative  Costs  and  Values  of  Meats       .        .        .  144 

Mutton 147 

Chicken 150 

Veal 152 

Stock 152 

Custards 154 

Beefsteak 155 

Croquettes 156 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS  Xlll 

JANUARY 

CHAPTER  VII 

PAGE 

PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKING,  by  Mrs.  L.  L.  W.  Wilson,  Ph.D., 

of  the  Philadelphia  Normal  School  .        .        .        .159 

Bibliography 161 

Effects  of  Heat       ...        .        .        .-       .        .163 

Effects  of  Cold  Water 163 

Boiling  and  Steaming    .......     166 

Boiling  of  Bones 168 

Boiling  of  Milk .         .     168 

Stewing .        .169 

Extracting 170 

Roasting .        .        .170 

Broiling          .        .         .         .  .  .        .     170 

Frying 171 

CHAPTER  VIII 
ADVANCED   COURSE 

FISH,  OYSTERS,  AND  SALADS,  by  Alice  Hooper  Beckler,  B.S., 
late  Instructor  in  Domestic  Science,  Pratt  Institute, 
now  Teacher  in  Charge  of  the  Zoological  Laboratory, 

Philadelphia  Normal  School 173 

Fish 173 

Bibliography 173 

Anatomy  of  Fish 173 

Preparation  for  Market      ......  177 

Seasonableness    ........  178 

Nutritive  Value 180 

Digestibility .  183 

Methods  of  Cooking .  184 

Synopsis  of  Lessons 187 


XIV  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


Oysters 192 

Bibliography 192 

Anatomy 193 

Cultivation  of  the  Oyster  .  .  .  .  .  .194 

Preparation  for  Market 194 

Preparation  for  Cooking 195 

Soups  and  Stews  . 196 

Salads 197 

Bibliography 197 

Food  Value  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  197 

Varieties  .  .  .- 198 

French  Dressing 199 

Olive  Oil 200 

Cottonseed  Oil 201 

Mayonnaise 201 

Chicken  and  Meat  Salads 202 

Rice  Salad 202 


FEBRUARY 

CHAPTER  IX 

THE  DINING  ROOM,  by  Mrs.  L.  L.  W.  Wilson,  Ph.D.,  of  the 

Philadelphia  Normal  School 205 

Bibliography  .         . 207 

Decoration  and  Furnishing  of  the  Dining  Room  .        .  208 

Breakfast 211 

Dinner 222 

Luncheon  or  Supper 227 

The  Weekly  Cleaning 228 

Table  Manners       ......  231 

Plants,  Flowers,  and  Aquaria 232 

Lamps 235 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS  XV 

CHAPTER  X 
ADVANCED   COURSE 

PAGE 

BREAD,  PASTRY,  AND  CAKE,  by  Mrs.  Alice  Peloubet  Norton, 
Lasell  Seminary;  Boston  Y.  W.  C.  A.  Domestic  Science 

Dept.,  and  Chautauqua,  KY .237 

Bibliography  .                 .         .         .         .         .         .         .  237 

Bread. 238 

Yeast  . 241 

Recipes 247 

Whole  Wheat  Bread  .        .        .        .        .        .        .248 

Lessons 249 

Baking  Powder  Mixtures 251 

Baking  Powder  Biscuit .......  253 

Short  Cake      .         .         . 253 

Dutch  Apple  Cake 254 

Baking  Powder       .         .  _     .        .         .         ...         .254 

Cake 256 

Pastry 258 

MAECH 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE  BEDROOM,  by  Caroline  L.  Hunt,  A.B.,  late  Assistant 
in  Food  Investigation,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
now  Instructor  in  Domestic  Economy,  Lewis  Institute, 

Chicago      .        .        . 261 

Bibliography 263 

Hygiene  of  the  Bedroom        ......  264 

Building  and  Furnishing       ......  270 

Personal  Habits  in  the  Bedroom 273 

Care  of  the  Bedroom 275 

Feeding  and  Care  of  the  Sick 277 

Invalid  Cookery 284 


XVI  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

APKIL 
CHAPTER  XII 

PAGE 

THE  LAUNDRY,  by  Mary  B.  Vail,  Graduate  and  late  Instructor 
in  Laundry  Work,  Pratt  Institute,  now  Instructor  in  Do- 
mestic Science  in  the  Manual  Training  High  School, 

Indianapolis,  Indiana 287 

Bibliography 289 

I.     Equipment  for  Laundry 289 

II.     Study  of  Materials 290 

Water 290 

Soap 291 

Bluing 291 

Starch 292 

in.     Rules  and  Recipes 292 

IV.     Practical  Lessons  in  Washing  and  Ironing           .  294 

V.     Ironing .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  295 

VI.     Care  of  the  Laundry  and  Utensils        .        .        .  296 

Course  I.     Eight  Fundamental  Lessons        .        .        .  297 

Course  II.     Eight  Supplementary  Lessons    .        .        .  306 


MAY 

CHAPTER  XIII 

HOUSEHOLD  PESTS,  by  S.  Maria  Elliott,  Boston,  Massachu- 
setts, joint  author  with  Mrs.  Richards  of  "Chemistry  of 

Cooking  and  Cleaning  " 315 

Bibliography 317 

Outline .        .318 

Materials 318 

Methods 318 

Processes  319 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  XV11 


Experiments 319 

I.     Typical  Insect        .        .  ' 321 

II.,  III.     Insects  Injurious  or  Disagreeable  to  Persons        .  326 

II.  Flies  and  Mosquitoes          ....  326 

III.  Bedbugs  and  Fleas 332 

IV.,  V.    Insects  Injurious  to  Food  or  Food  Supplies         .  339 

IV.  Cockroaches        ;        .        .        .        .        .339 
V.  Ants,  etc.     . 344 

VI.,  VII.     Insects  Injurious  to  Clothing  or  Fabrics      .        .  348 

VI.  Moths  and  Silverfish           ....  348 
VII.  Carpet-beetles  and  Crickets         .        .        .355 
Suggestions    for    Related    Language    and    Reading 

Lessons    .                359 


CHAPTER  XIV 

HOUSE  CLEANING,  by  Mrs.  L.  L.  W.  Wilson,  Ph.D.,  of  the 

Philadelphia  Normal  School 362 


JUNE 

CHAPTER  XV 

MENDING  AND  SEWING,  by  Julia  K.  McDougall,  Supervisor 

of  Classes  in  Domestic  Art,  Pratt  Institute      .        .        .  365 

Bibliography 367 

History  of  Sewing 368 

Study  of  Material 369 

Wool 369 

Cotton     .        . .370 

Flax 371 

Needles 372 

Thimble 373 

Lessons  in  Detail  374 


XV1H  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PACK 

HOW  TO  TURN  AN  ORDINARY  SCHOOLROOM  INTO  A  WORK- 
SHOP FOR  THE  STUDY  or  HOUSEHOLD  ARTS,  by  M.  Isa- 
bella McNear,  graduate  of  the  Boston  Normal  School 
of  Domestic  Science,  late  Principal  of  Trinity  Parish 
Cooking  School.  Now  Instructor  in  Domestic  Science, 
Hampton  Institute,  Virginia 390 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  course  of  study  outlined  in  the  following  pages  has 
already  been  subjected  to  the  test  of  practical  application 
in  the  schoolroom,  with  excellent  results.  I  believe  that 
it  may  be  pursued  with  profit,  both  to  the  teacher  and  to 
the  pupil,  in  any  or  all  of  grammar  grades,  and  in  any 
school  however  poorly  equipped. 

It  has  been  planned  chiefly  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
ordinary  grade  teacher  in  the  public  schools.  It  is  designed 
as  an  answer  to  two  questions  which  she  will  probably  ask 
herself  when  invited  to  undertake  this  work,  —  questions 
which  may  present  themselves  so  forcibly  as  to  be  received 
as  insuperable  objections  to  the  further  consideration  of  the 
matter. 

"Can  I  teach  this  subject  without  special  training?" 

"Can  I  accomplish  anything  without  a  laboratory,  that 
is  to  say,  without  special  rooms  equipped  and  set  aside  for 
this  purpose  ?  " 

The  answer  to  both  questions  is  yes,  for  the  first  year  of 
the  course  here  presented  does  not  presuppose  special  train- 
ing on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  nor  the  use  of  special  labora- 
tories. It  does,  however,  take  for  granted  a  strong  desire 
on  her  part  to  do  this  work,  a  lively  belief  in  its  efficiency, 
and  an  earnest  effort  to  become  better  acquainted  with  the 
facts  and  philosophy  of  everyday  home  life. 

The  grade  teacher  who  first  earnestly  teaches  as  much 
as  she  can  without  a  laboratory  will  have  the  most  con- 


XX  INTRODUCTION 

vincing  argument  on  her  side  when  she  asks,  as  she  cer- 
tainly will,  for  rooms  properly  arranged  and  equipped  for 
the  purpose.  To  such  Miss  McNear's  chapter  on  "  How  to 
turn  an  Ordinary  Schoolroom  into  a  Workshop  for  the  Study 
of  Household  Arts  "  will  be  full  of  valuable  suggestions. 

One  of  the  chief  merits  of  the  book  lies  in  the  fact  that 
since  each  chapter  of  this  manual  contains,  by  design,  much 
more  material  than  can  possibly  be  used  under  the  most 
advantageous  circumstances  in  the  single  month  in  which 
it  is  placed,  the  teacher  is  thereby  enabled  to  give  a  course 
or  several  courses  adapted  to  her  own  peculiar  needs  and 
facilities.  She  may  give  with  its  aid :  — 

1.  A  course  of  one  hour  a  week  for  one  year,  consisting 
of  "  housework."     A  laboratory  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 

2.  A  course  of  two  hours  a  week  for  one  year,  or  one 
hour  for  two  years,  consisting  of  housework,  mending,  and 
food.     A  laboratory  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 

3.  A  course  of  two  hours  a  week  for  two  years,  con- 
sisting of  housework,  sewing,  foods,  principles  of  cooking, 
and  some  practice  in  the  art.     For  this  course  a  laboratory 
will  be  necessary. 

4.  A  course  of  two  hours  a  week  for  three  years.     This 
will  include  nearly  all  the  material  given  in  this  volume. 
A  laboratory  will  be  necessary. 

5.  A  four  years'  course,  including  more  practice  in  sew- 
ing and  cooking.      For  the  efficient  carrying  out  of  this 
course  the  teacher  will  need  for  her  own  use  in  teaching 
the  fourth  year  students  a  text-book  for  cooking  similar 
to  the  "  Boston  Cooking  School  Cook-book "  and  Smith's 
"  Needlework   for   Student   Teachers."      Laboratories    are 
necessary. 

Those  who  can  give  but  one  hour  a  week  to  the  subject 
are  urged  to  pay  particular  attention  to  Chapter  I,  in  which 
are  outlined  ten  topics,  each  of  which  might  well  occupy 


INTRODUCTION  xxi 

one  of  the  ten  school  months.     Other  chapters  discuss  each 
of  these  subjects  with  more  detail. 

To  those  who  can  spend  at  least  two  hours  a  week  on 
this  subject,  the  following  division  of  the  subject-matter 
is  suggested :  — 

SEPTEMBER. — Development  of  the  Home  Ideal,  Evolu- 
tion of  the  House,  General  Considerations  of  Each  of  its 
Rooms.  Chapter  I  on  the  House  Beautiful. 

OCTOBER.  —  Tlie  Kitchen,  including  the  Kange  and  Clean- 
ing. 

NOVEMBER.  —  Foods :  Study  of  Food  Materials  and  their 
Digestion. 

DECEMBER.  —  Foods:  Food  Value,  Dietaries,  and  Food 
Economies. 

JANUARY.  —  Principles  of  Cooking. 

FEBRUARY. —  TJie  Dining  Room,  including  preparation 
of  menus. 

MARCH.  —  The  Bedroom,  including  ventilation. 
APRIL.  —  Laundry. 
MAY.  —  Household  Pests. 
JUNE.  —  Mending. 

For  both  of  these  general  courses  the  Eeader  written  to 
accompany  this  manual  and  intended  for  the  use  of  pupils 
will  be  found  of  value.  In  it  may  be  found  the  homes 
of  literature,  household  customs  of  other  ages  and  countries, 
studies  of  home  materials,  etc. 

Those  who  can  spend  two  consecutive  years  of  two 
hours  a  week  are  advised  to  follow  in  the  second  year  a 
course  something  like  the  following :  — 


XXll  INTRODUCTION 

SEPTEMBER. — Review  the  Chemistry  of  Foods  and  Prin- 
ciples of  Cooking. 

OCTOBER  AND  NOVEMBER. — Starchy  Foods  and  How  to 
Cook  Them. 

DECEMBER.  — Proteids  and  How  to  Cook  Them. 

JANUARY.  —  Fish,  Oysters,  and  Salad. 

FEBRUARY.  —  Cake  and  Pastry. 

MARCH. — Invalid  Cooking. 

APRIL.  —  Advanced  Laundry  Work. 

MAY. — House  Cleaning  and  Household  Pests. 

JUNE.  —  Advanced  Mending  and  Sewing. 

BELATED  WORK:  Beading.  —  The  Eeader  accompanying 
this  manual  provides  abundant  reading  matter.  But  with 
the  aid  of  the  typewriter  and  mimeograph,  or  even  with 
the  mimeograph  alone,  the  intelligent  teacher  can  provide 
her  class  with  additional  material  by  following  up  the 
numerous  references,  particularly  to  the  various  magazines. 

Language.  —  Or  she  may  use  these  same  sources  of  mate- 
rial for  her  own  information,  imparting  it  to  the  children 
in  oral  language  lessons.  Carefully  written  exercises  should 
follow  all  completed  subjects. 

It  goes  without  saying  in  these  progressive  days,  all  new 
words  belong  to  the  next  spelling  lesson. 

Arithmetic.  —  This  is  somewhat  carefully  worked  out  in 
the  chapter  on  "  Foods."  Similar  work  may  be  done  in  con- 
nection with  many  of  the  other  subjects.  Do  not  fall  into 
the  prevalent  error  of  thinking  that  in  using  the  word  "  fish  " 
in  an  arithmetical  problem  you  are  correlating  arithmetic 
and  domestic  science !  The  problem  must  be  real,  not  sham, 
and  the  relationship  intrinsic,  not  artificial.  Probably  the 


INTRODUCTION  XXlll 

best  opportunity  for  this  applied  arithmetic  may  be  found 
in  the  planning  and  equipment  of  the  rooms.  The  dimen- 
sions, areas,  and  costs  are  questions  that  must  be  solved  by 
some.  Why  not  by  the  pupils  as  well  as  the  teacher  ? 

In  conclusion  I  should  like  to  say  that  if  the  grade  teacher 
feels  as  much  interest  and  gathers  as  much  knowledge  in 
reading  this  volume  as  I  did  in  reading  each  separate 
manuscript,  as  it  came  to  my  hands,  then  the  mission  of 
the  book  will  be  accomplished,  and  the  day  is  near  at  hand 
when  every  school  child  in  the  land  will  be  guided  by  intel- 
ligent hands  over  the  threshold  of  that  earthly  Paradise, 
a  clean,  restful,  beautiful  home. 

But  remember, 

"  It  takes  a  MIND  to  drive  the  Body 
Even  to  a  cleaner  sty  ! " 


L.  L.  W.  WILSON. 


PHILADELPHIA  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 
January,  1900. 


SEPTEMBER 


THE   HOUSE   BEAUTIFUL 


BY  MAY  HAGGENBOTHAM 

LATE  DIBBCTOR  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  AND  ART  COURSES  AT  DREXEL 

INSTITUTE,  PHILADELPHIA 

SOMETIME  ASSISTANT  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 
OF  PHILADELPHIA 


CHAPTER   I 

THE  HOUSE  BEAUTIFUL 
BY  MAY  HAGGENBOTHAM 

"Our  life  can  never  be  complete,  never  be  rational  or  righteous, 
until  it  is  beautiful.  Only  when  every  foul  alley,  every  noxious  home, 
every  vulgar  structure,  and  every  base  fashion  is  banished  from  the 
city  and  over  all  is  spread  the  mantle  of  health  and  beauty,  only  then 
can  .  .  .  whatever  city  be  ours  be  indeed  the  city  of  God." 

From  "A  More  Beautiful  Public  Life,"  by  EDWIN  D.  MEAD. 

THE  public  school  is  responsible  for  the  nurture  and  devel- 
opment of  every  civic  virtue.  The  feeling  for  beauty  is  one 
of  these  virtues. 

From  first  to  last  of  his  school  life  the  child  should  be 
taught  to  aim  at  cleanliness  and  simplicity,  and  through 
these  at  beauty,  in  the  schoolroom  and  in  the  home.  Only 
in  proportion  as  this  teaching  is  given  can  we  hope  to  banish 
the  "  foul  alley  and  noxious  home  "  and  to  replace  the  "  vul- 
gar structure  and  base  fashion  "  with  things  of  beauty. 

This  truth  is  pressing  itself  home  to  teachers  everywhere, 
and  not  a  few  are  asking,  "  How  can  we  who  have  had  no 
special  training  in  matters  of  taste  and  art  bring  this  influ- 
ence into  the  lives  of  our  pupils  ?  " 

It  is  the  design  of  this  chapter  to  answer  this  question 
in  part  at  least.  The  subject  is  a  broad  one  and  needs 
a  book  rather  than  a  chapter;  but  some  suggestions  can 
be  made. 

From  the  School  to  the  Home.  —  It  is  repeatedly  said  that 
the  teaching  in  the  schools  should  find  closer  application 

3 


4  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

to  the  home.  The  problem  is,  how  to  make  this  appli- 
cation. 

We  cannot  follow  each  pupil  into  his  home  and  show  him 
how  to  apply  our  teaching  —  how  to  make  the  best  of  his 
means  and  his  limitations.  We  are  masters  of  nothing  but 
precept  and  example. 

The  most  that  the  teacher  can  do  is  to  use  earnestly 
and  vigorously  every  means  of  illustration  afforded  her  by 
nature  and  by  art  to  arouse  and  keep  alive  in  the  child  a 
love  for  beauty,  and  then  to  make  herself  and  her  surround- 
ings the  best  possible  exponent  of  her  teachings. 

With  the  schoolroom  an  embodiment  of  the  teacher's 
ideas  of  cleanliness,  refinement,  and  beauty,  she  can  lead 
the  pupils  to  think  about  the  home  and  desire  to  make  it 
beautiful. 

An  Expedient.  —  In  my  own  classes  I  have  tried  with 
gratifying  results  the  expedient  of  constructing  and  furnish- 
ing an  imaginary  house  that  should  meet  all  sanitary  require- 
ments and  be  convenient  and  beautiful ;  and  I  have  never 
given  any  instruction  that  was  received  with  more  interest 
and  enthusiasm  than  this  was. 

The  Domestic  Instinct.  —  The  domestic  instinct  is  very 
lively  in  young  girls.  Every  one  expects  some  day  to  have 
a  home  of  her  own,  and  she  will  go  with  you  every  step  of 
the  way  in  rearing  it  in  fancy.  Girls  in  the  humblest  as 
well  as  those  in  the  most  comfortable  homes  will  enter  into 
the  matter  with  as  much  gravity  and  earnestness  as  though 
the' actual  work  were  in  progress;  and  they  will  take  end- 
less pains  to  make  observations  of  house  plans,  to  visit 
houses  that  are  building,  to  notice  the  shapes  and  styles  of 
furniture,  and  the  quality  and  color  of  fabrics  that  are  dis- 
played in  the  shops ;  and  in  every  other  way  that  you  sug- 
gest, they  will  observe,  compare,  and  form  conclusions  as  to 
what  is  fitting  and  beautiful  for  their  ideal  home. 


THE   HOUSE   BEAUTIFUL  5 

Moreover,  such,  lessons  reach,  into  the  real  households. 
Many  mothers  have  expressed  their  gratitude  for  them  and 
have  declared  that  a  complete  revolution  in  taste  was  in 
progress  in  their  homes. 

The  plan  of  lessons  here  presented  is  not  supposed  to  be 
binding  as  to  form  or  number.  It  merely  suggests  a  con- 
venient way  of  presenting  the  matter,  and  may  be  adapted 
to  individual  requirements. 

The  Character  of  the  Lessons.  —  It  is  not  intended  to  vie 
with  the  courses  in  Household  Art  given  in  the  Technical 
Schools ;  nor  to  present  information  to  be  given  out  to 
pupils  as  a  set  of  directions  for  making  a  beautiful  house ; 
but  simply  and  solely  to  suggest  to  the  teacher  in  the 
elementary  school  how  she  may  help  her  pupils  to  know 
the  meaning  of  the  house  beautiful,  the  house  that  will  be 
the  expression  of  whatever  intelligence  and  cultivation  the 
circumstances  of  their  lives  have  made  it  possible  for  them 
to  obtain. 

A  Preface  Suggested.  —  I  should  preface  the  lessons  with 
a  brief  talk  on  the  evolution  of  the  modern  house  and  the 
family  social  life.  This  should  be  quite  general  and  in- 
formal. The  object  is  not  to  give  archaeological  knowledge ; 
but  simply  to  stimulate  the  intelligence  and  curiosity  of  the 
pupil  and  to  create  an  interest  in  comparing  the  present 
with  the  past. 

TOPIC  I 
THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HOUSE 

The  First  Essential.  —  Emphasize  the  fact  that  the  first 
conditions  of  beauty  are  health  and  wholesomeness,  and 
that  a  healthful,  beautiful  location,  good  construction,  perfect 
drainage,  perfect  plumbing,  and  perfect  sanitary  conditions 
generally,  are  indispensable  to  the  house  beautiful. 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

The  House  Plan. — Talk  with  the  pupils  about  the  gen- 
eral plan  of  houses  in  their  town  or  city.  Have  them 
sketch  the  ground  plan. 

The  plan  presented  in  most  cases  will  probably  be  the 
typical  city  house  with  the  long  entry,  as  indicated  in  Dia- 
gram 1.  But  in  many  of  the  newer  houses  the  long  entry  is 
dispensed  with,  and  a  portion  of  the  lower  floor  space  taken 
for  a  small  central  hall,  as  indicated  in  Diagram  2. 

Question  the  pupils  as  to  the  position  of  water  and  gas 
pipes  and  house  drain ;  the  height  of  cellar  above  ground, 
the  height  of  rooms ;  position  of  the  house  in  regard  to  the 
points  of  the  compass  (to"  determine  which  rooms  get  sun- 
light) ;  the  kind  of  floors,  and  other  woodwork. 

Let  them  make  diagrams  of  the  other  floors.  Sketch  the 
plans  on  the  blackboard. 

Indicate  what  improvements  may  be  made  in  the  ordinary 
house  plan  in  the  way  of  providing  greater  conveniences  for 
the  housekeeper,  better  accommodations  for  servants,  a 
simplified  arrangement  of  the  plumbing  about  a  central 
shaft  in  order  to  dispense,  as  far  as  possible,  with  hori- 
zontal pipes,  and  anything  else  that  will  make  this  a  house 
practical  and  comfortable. 

All  this  can  be  made  very  simple  and  intelligible  to 
young  girls.  A  house  plan  of  the  simple  character  here 
suggested  (a  diagram,  or  outline  of  the  floor  plans  without 
elevation)  is  no  more  difficult  to  deal  with  than  an  ordinary 
problem  in  mensuration,  and  the  line  of  thought  suggested 
will  ultimately  result  in  a  better  understanding  of  domestic 
architecture  and  a  consequent  demand  for  improvements 
in  it. 

Until  women  are  educated  in  these  things  builders  will 
not  cease  to  depend  on  loudly  decorated  walls,  mantel 
overshelves  with  wonderful  combinations  of  little  balus- 
trades, looking  glass  and  cheap  mouldings,  stationary 


THE   HOUSE   BEAUTIFUL  ( 

wardrobes  with  glued-on  ornaments,  and  other  such  surface 
attractions,  to  sell  or  rent  houses  that  have  poor  woodwork, 
bad  floors,  and  worse  plumbing.  And  legislation  on  sani- 
tary matters  can  never  be  made  thoroughly  operative  until 
women  understand  the  principles  of  sanitation  and  enforce 
the  laws  in  the  home. 

Valuable  hints  on  construction  and  sanitation  will  be 
found  in  "  Home  Sanitation,"  a  little  handbook  prepared  by 
the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae. 

More  than  one  lesson  may  be  needed  on  the  present 
topic.  Pupils  may  have  very  hazy  ideas  as  to  the  outlines 
of  rooms,  the  position  of  pipes,  etc.,  and  even  as  to  how  the 
gas  and  water  get  into  the  house. 

Having  constructed  our  ideal  house,  we  will  proceed  to 
furnish  it.  The  plan  suggested  in  Diagram  2  has  been 
chosen  for  the  obvious  advantages  it  offers  of  illustrating 
certain  principles  in  furnishing.  The  next  lesson  will  con- 
sider the  vestibule. 

TOPIC   II 
THE  VESTIBULE 

Ask  the  purpose  of  the  vestibule,  and  try  to  get  the 
pupils  to  state  what  the  purpose  would  naturally  dictate 
as  to  furnishing  and  decorating. 

Have  patience  to  draw  them  out.  They  have  never 
thought  much  about  so  commonplace  a  subject. 

Conditions  to  be  dealt  with.  —  Finally  it  will  be  answered 
that  the  vestibule  is  a  part  of  the  entrance  to  the  house 
designed  to  protect  the  inner  entrance  and  at  times  to 
shelter  some  one  waiting.  Then  it  can  easily  be  estab- 
lished :  — 

Conclusions  drawn  from  Facts.  — 1.  That  as  this  part  of  the 
entrance  is  most  of  the  time  exposed  to  the  weather,  it 
should  be  and  appear  to  be  weather-proof. 


HANDBOOK  OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


N9  1 


THE    HOUSE   BEAUTIFUL  9 

2.  That  as  it  serves  to  give  one  entering,  the  first  impres- 
sion of  the  abode  and  its  inhabitants,  therefore  it  should  be 
pleasing  and  scrupulously  neat  and  clean. 

3.  That  as  those  entering  receive  'but  a  passing  impres- 
sion, any  elaborate  decoration  would  be  wasted ;  moreover, 
as  the  place  stands  open  to  public  view,  such  decoration 
would  not  be  in  good  taste. 

Discuss  the  materials  that  would  best  meet  all  these 
conditions. 

The  conclusions  reached  will  be  something  like  the. 
following :  — 

Suggestions  for  Furnishing. 

The  Floor.  —  1.  The  floor  should  be  covered  with  some 
weather-proof  material,  preferably  marble,  or  tiles.  If 
these  are  too  expensive,  linoleum  may  be  used. 

Side  Walls.  —  2.  For  the  lower  side  walls  the  first  choice 
would  be  marble,  or  tiles,  corresponding  to  the  floor.  The 
second  choice,  hard  plaster.  If  wood  must  be  used,  it  should 
be  treated  so  as  to  be  weather-proof. 

The  side  walls  above  the  wainscoting  should  be,  prefera- 
bly, hard  plaster.  This  should  be  tinted  in  some  subdued 
flat  color,  as  lapis-lazuli  blue,  pale  green,  or  pearly  gray. 

A  very  pretty  and  suitable  decoration  is  made  by  outlin- 
ing panels  on  the  side  walls  with  strips  of  moulding.  These 
may  be  painted  in  contrasting  color  or  left  in  the  natural 
state  if  of  hard  wood  (explain  this  term). 

Lighting.  —  For  lighting,  a  gas  fixture  (or  electric  fixture) 
in  the  form  of  a  lantern  is  most  suitable.  (Ask  why.) 

The  conclusions  may  be  gathered  up  by  the  teacher  and 
written  on  the  board  at  first. 

Gathering  up  the  Threads.  —  Enough  time  should  be  left 
of  each  lesson  period  to  allow  the  pupils  to  write  out  an 
abstract  of  the  lesson  in  their  note-books.  These  should 
be  carefully  examined  and  corrected;  but  pupils  should 


10  HANDBOOK  OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

be    encouraged     to    express   their    own    preferences     and 
opinions. 

At  this  stage  the  pupils  will  have  become  acquainted  with 
the  method  of  reasoning,  and  the  subject  of  the  next  lesson 
may  be  given  out.  This  means  that  students  are  expected 
to  give  some  thought  to  the  matter  and  to  make  all  possible 
observations  and  bring  suggestions  to  class. 

TOPIC  III 

THE  FIRST  FLOOR  SUITE 
THE  HALL 

Satisfy  yourself  that  the  pupils  have  a  clear  mental  pic- 
ture of  the  space  under  consideration. 

Matters  to  be  Considered. 

Discussion. — 1.  The  purposes  of  the  hall  and  of  each  of 
the  adjoining  rooms  —  say  there  are  two. 

2.  What  common  sense  dictates  as  to  the  furnishing  of 
these  rooms.     What  limitations  are  imposed  upon  us  by  the 
fact  that  these  three  rooms  open  upon  each  other. 

3.  The  treatment  of  the  floor,  the  walls,  the  ceiling. 

4.  The  movable  furnishings. 

Conclusions.  —  The  needs  and  preferences  of  the  family 
must  determine  the  purposes  to  which  these  or  any  other 
rooms  are  to  be  put. 

Builders  seem  to  have  intended  the  hall  for  a  sort  of 
living  room,  as  they  have  given  us  a  chimney  place  in  it ; 
but  there  can  be  no  privacy  for  the  family  in  a  passageway, 
which  this  really  is  —  so  we  had  better  decide  to  furnish  it 
as  a  hall. 

Like  the  vestibule,  the  hall  serves  to  give  some  intimation 
of  the  general  tone  of  refinement,  or  the  lack  of  it,  that  one 
may  look  for  in  the  occupants  of  the  house.  It  is  less  formal 


THE   HOUSE   BEAUTIFUL  11 

than  the  vestibule,  as  it  shuts  out  the  gaze  of  the  world ;  but 
it  is  still  outside  of  the  real  life  of  the  home.  Therefore, 
while  it  may  be  made  quite  bright,  or  even  gay  in  tone,  it 
must  yet  be  somewhat  formal.  The  room  opening  off  to  the 
front  of  the  house  may  be  taken  for  a  living  room  ;  that  on 
the  other  side,  for  a  dining  room. 

We  have  a  rather  difficult  problem  —  three  rooms  each 
having  different  uses  yet  coming  together  almost  as  one 
room.  The  use,  the  light,  the  woodwork,  must  all  be  con- 
sidered in  furnishing. 

The  Function  of  Floor  and  Walls  in  Decoration.  —  It  is 
most  important  to  secure  harmony  of  effect  in  the  color 
scheme.  For  this  we  must  begin  with  the  floors  and  the 
walls.  These  are  the  background  for  the  furniture,  and  no 
matter  how  fine  or  beautiful  our  movables  may  be,  the 
effect  of  all  may  be  ruined  by  a  bad  arrangement  of  color 
in  the  background.  With  the  color  scheme  right,  however, 
the  simplest  and  most  inexpensive  of  furnishings  may 
present  a  charming  effect. 

The  floors  then  should  be  of  uniform  color  throughout  — 
if  of  good  hard  lumber  and  well  laid,  they  may  be  left  in  the 
natural  color,  treated  with  oil  or  paraffin,  and  kept  rubbed 
smooth  and  shining.  Even  rather  inferior  floors  may  be  filled 
and  stained  and  then  treated  in  a  way  suitable  to  the  wood. 

(Samples  of  different  woods  should  be  shown  the  pupils, 
and  directions  given  for  the  treatment  suitable  to  each.) 

Suggestions  for  Furnishing. 

The  Floors.  —  Rugs  suited  to  the  purposes  of  each  room 
should  be  used.  If  Turkish  rugs  in  rich,  soft  colors  are  too 
expensive,  there  are  excellent  Japanese  and  domestic  rugs 
at  lower  prices.  Rugs  made  of  lengths  of  Brussels  carpet 
are  pretty  and  durable.  In  inakrng  a  selection  give  first 
thought  to  the  color.  Avoid  violent  contrasts  and  figures 
that  stand  out  obtrusively. 


12  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

The  Color  of  the  Walls.  —  If  there  are  large  openings  from 
the  hall  to  the  other  rooms,  select  the  papers  for  the  three 
rooms  at  the  same  time  and  with  reference  to  each  other. 
We  might  for  instance  select  a  lighter  shade  of  terra-cotta 
for  the  hall  and  darker  shades  of  the  same  color  for  the 
other  two  rooms.  Or  a  somewhat  rich  figured  paper  might 
be  selected  for  the  hall  and  harmonizing  plain  papers  for 
the  other  two  rooms. 

In  figured  papers  dignified  designs  should  be  used  —  those 
in  vertical  "  repeats  "  of  a  climbing  character,  in  which  the 
figures  melt  into  the  background  and  do  not  stand  out 
offensively. 

Principles  governing  Selection. 

Light  and  Mass.  —  Note  that  dark  surfaces  absorb  light, 
whereas  light  surfaces  reflect  it.  Also  note  that  paper  on 
the  wall  in  mass  is  at  least  four  shades  darker  than  in  the 
hand.  Bear  this  in  mind.  In  the  matter  of  wall  papers 
one  is  too  prone  to  buy  in  haste  and  repent  at  leisure. 

The  Principle  of  Gradation. — We  must  observe  the  prin- 
ciple of  gradation  in  forming  our  background  of  floor  and 
walls ;  viz.  the  floors  should  be  darkest  —  the  strongest 
tones  of  color  belong  at  the  base ;  the  walls  should  take  the 
next  tone  lighter;  the  ceiling,  the  lightest.  A  frieze,  carry- 
ing up  the  tone  of  the  wall  in  lighter  tint,  should  be  finished 
with  a  picture  rod  the  same  color  as  the  woodwork  of  the 
room. 

Have  a  good  supply  of  samples  of  wall  paper,  mould- 
ings, fabrics  of  various  colors,  etc.,  for  illustration,  and  let 
the  pupils  arrange  and  study  various  combinations  of  color 
and  material.  If  you  encourage  them  to  do  their  own 
thinking  and  seeing,  the  power  to  judge  correctly  will  grow 
rapidly. 

The  Furniture.  —  Instead  of  the  conventional  hall  stand 
we  may  use  a  neatly  framed  mirror  with  pegs  for  hats, 


THE  HOUSE  BEAUTIFUL  13 

and  a  polished  wood  bench  or  settee  with  the  seat  in  the 
form  of  a  box.  Or  the  settee  may  be  a  strong  willow  one, 
with  a  cushion  or  two  in  accord  with  the  general  color 
scheme. 

One  or  two  substantial  hall  chairs,  a  table  for  magazines, 
a  vase  for  flowers  and  a  tray  for  cards,  and  a  porcelain 
jar  of  good  color,  for  holding  sticks  and  umbrellas,  complete 
the  necessary  furniture  of  the  hall. 

The  Staircase.  —  The  staircase  forms  part  of  the  furnish- 
ing, and  should  carry  out  the  general  plan. 

Decorations.  —  A  few  good  pictures,  decorative  in  charac- 
ter, may  be  used  here. 

A  few  plants  suitable  for  indoors  will  serve  to  brighten 
the  place ;  but  we  must  see  that  they  are  well  cared  for. 

As  this  room  gets  but  little  light,  let  the  window  curtain 
be  a  mere  transparent  screen  set  against  the  glass. 

TOPIC   IV 

THE  FIRST  FLOOR  SUITE  (Continued) 
THE  DINING  ROOM 

Discussion.  —  1.  The  meaning  of  this  room  in  the  social 
life  of  the  family. 

2.  The  character  of  the  furnishings. 

Conclusions.  —  It  is  here  that,  the  family,  separated  in 
their  daily  pursuits,  meet  together  for  social  cheer.  All 
should  be  serene  and  peaceful.  No  personal  differences 
should  be  allowed  to  mar  the  general  harmony.  The 
surroundings  should  accord  with  the  spirit.  Cheerfulness 
should  beam  from  every  point. 

Furniture. — The  furniture  should  be  simple  and  sub- 
stantial :  —  a  table  standing  firmly  on  its  legs  ;  chairs  cane- 
seated  or  of  other  material  easily  kept  clean ;  china  closet 


14  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

shining  and  well  kept;  a  sideboard  or  table  in  keeping 
with  the  other  pieces. 

Decorations. — For  adornment,  a  wainscoting  carried  well 
up  on  the  walls  may  be  finished  with  a  plate  rail  on  which 
may  rest  plates  and  plaques  of  good  color.  The  mantel- 
piece may  hold  a  piece  of  pottery  or  a  cast,  and  some 
simple  candelabra.  Admit  no  meaningless  ornaments. 

Spotless  table  linen  and  neat  dishes  —  they  may  be  prettily 
decorated  and  yet  cheap  —  are  the  crowning  adornments  of 
this  room. 

Historical  Sketch. — It  will  add  to  the  interest  of  this 
lesson  to  note  that  a  separate  room  for  taking  meals  —  now 
a  part  of  the  house  plan  of  even  the  workingman's  home, 
is  one  of  the  luxuries  of  modern  life.  Even  a  generation 
ago  old-fashioned  people  in  England  and  America  used 
their  dining  rooms  as  living  rooms.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
nobleman  and  his  servants  ate  in  the  hall.  The  tables  con- 
sisted of  boards  resting  on  trestles.  The  seats  were  narrow 
benches  or  stools  so  made  that  they  could  be  easily  carried 
away  when  the  meal  was  over.  The  meals  eaten  in  private 
were  served  in  the  lord's  chamber.  The  mediaeval  chamber 
developed  into  a  private  suite  of  living  rooms,  the  outer  one 
of  which  came  to  be  used  as  the  family  dining  room.* 


TOPIC  V 
THE  LIVING  BOOM 

Tradition  vs.  Individuality.  —  We  have  decided  to  give 
this  name  to  the  room  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  hall. 
The  needs  and  means  of  the  family  must  really  determine 
its  use.  No  mere  tradition  as  to  what  has  been  customary, 
or  fancy  as  to  what  our  neighbors  might  expect  us  to 

*  "The  Decoration  of  Houses."  —  WHARTON  AND  CODMAN. 


THE   HOUSE  BEAUTIFUL  15 

have,  ought  to  weigh  one  feather's  weight  with  us  in 
determining  how  we  shall  use  any  room  in  our  house. 
If  the  family  is  small  and  can  afford  to  keep  this  as  a 
company  or  reception  room,  it  may  be  furnished  daintily 
and  used  for  that  purpose.  Otherwise  it  is  folly  and 
extravagance  to  stint  the  rest  of  the  household  appoint- 
ments for  the  sake  of  furnishing  a  room  with  things 
too  good  to  be  used  —  a  room  from  which  every  member 
of  the  family  flees  the  moment  the  company  leaves. 

Discussion.  —  1.  The  furnishings  that  will  best  serve  the 
purposes  for  which  this  room  is  to  be  used. 

2.  Inexpensive  materials  that  produce  good  effects. 

3.  The  management  of  the  color  scheme. 
Conclusions. 

Suggestions  for  Furnishing.  —  1.  A  firm,  generous  table 
that  will  hold  books,  magazines,  and  lamps ;  a  comfortable 
divan  with  numerous  pillows ;  plenty  of  easy  chairs  ;  plain, 
well-made  bookcases  or  sets  of  shelves ;  and  perhaps  a  corner 
cabinet  in  which  to  place  objects  of  beauty  and  value. 
A  few  good  pictures,  —  only  good  ones  are  worth  looking 
at  all  the  time ;  and  an  ornament  or  two  of  good  form,  — 
a  vase,  a  cast  or  any  object  that  is  beautiful  in  color 
and  form  and  made  in  suitable  materials. 

Artistic  Effects  with  Inexpensiye  Materials. — 2.  Strong 
willow  chairs  and  couches  with  movable  cushions  may 
be  used  with  good  effect.  The  hangings  in  the  room 
and  the  covers  on  the  seat  cushions  may  be  of  the  same 
color  and  material.  This  gives  a  pleasing  effect  of  unity. 
Denims  are  very  satisfactory  for  this  purpose;  and  when 
the  hangings  are  ornamented  with  a  bold  embroidery 
of  a  white  floss  thread  on  the  borders,  the  effect  is 
charming. 

The  Color  Scheme.  —  3.  We  must  remember  that  the  floors 
and  the  walls  have  already  been  decided  upon,  and  the 


16  HANDBOOK   OF  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

colors  used  must  be  such  as  will  make  no  discord  with 
this  background.  Choose  the  dominant  tone  of  color  in 
your  room  and  keep  everything  else  in  accord  with  it. 

Head  with  the  pupils  from  Professor  Morse's  "  Japanese 
Homes  and  their  Surroundings/'  some  descriptions  of 
Japanese  interiors.  While  we  need  not  feel  bound  to  prune 
our  ideas  to  the  simple  severity  of  furnishing  adhered  to  by 
the  Japanese,  we  may  be  instructed  by  the  elegance,  refine- 
ment, and  serenity  of  mind  expressed  in  their  surroundings. 

TOPIC  VI 
THE  BEDROOMS 

The  Attitude  of  the  Teacher  in  these  Lessons.  —  The  most 
important  principles  of  household  furnishing  have  now  been 
illustrated.  Keep  these  principles  clearly  in  your  own  mind 
and  make  each  succeeding  lesson  illustrate,  them,  leading 
the  pupils  to  deduce  them  from  the  facts  offered.  In  the  end 
they  should  be  able  to  formulate  them  and  write  them  out 
in  such  shape  as  will  impress  them  upon  their  minds.  Of 
course  the  principles  are  the  only  really  important  things  in 
the  lessons.  House  furnishing  is  not  an  exact  science.  No 
hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down  as  to  how  any  one 
should  furnish  one's  house.  It  should  be  an  expression  of 
one's  own  personal  character  and  liking  guided  by  the  fun- 
darftental  principles  of  good  taste.  The  sole  purpose  of  these 
lessons  is  to  elucidate  and  inculcate  these  principles. 

Serious  Considerations. 

Discussion.  —  1.  The  sanitary  requirements  of  the  bed- 
room; why  sun  is  more  necessary  here  than  in  any  other 
room  in  the  house. 

2.  The  furnishings  consistent  with  sanitary  requirements. 

3.  The  adornments  expressive  of  the  individuality  of  the 
occupant. 


THE    HOUSE   BEAUTIFUL  17 

A  Test  for  the  Pupils.  —  Instead  of  formulating  the  "  con- 
clusions "  as  in  previous  lessons,  test  the  impression  made 
by  your  teaching  by  letting  the  pupils  write  a  description 
of  a  bedroom  that  shall  satisfy  all  sanitary  and  artistic 
requirements.  Let  them  call  it  "My  Bedroom."  It  may 
be  wholly  imaginary  of  course.  Read  the  best  of  the 
descriptions  in  class  and  supply  any  missing  points. 

Suggestion.  —  Give  a  brief  historical  sketch  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  bedroom,  —  its  outgrowth  as  an  escape  from 
the  promiscuity  of  the  hall ;  its  division  into  the  company 
chamber  (or  drawing-room)  and  the  actual  sleeping  room, 
which  was,  however,  used  as  the  family  living  room  and  as 
the  scene  of  suppers,  card  parties,  etc.,  and  sometimes  even 
as  the  kitchen. 

This  sketch  may  be  gathered  from  "The  Decoration  of 
Houses,"  by  Edith  Wharton  and  Ogden  Codman. 

TOPIC   VII 
THE  BATH-ROOM 

Discussion.  —  1.    Sanitary  principles  and  requirements. 

2.  Floors  and  walls. 

3.  Furnishing. 
Conclusions. 

Sanitary  Requirements. — 1.  All  pipes  must  be  exposed 
and  easily  accessible ;  all  waste  pipes  trapped  and  ventilated ; 
all  fixtures  set  on  legs  or  brackets ;  no  woodwork  that  can 
possibly  be  dispensed  with. 

Suggestions  for  Furnishing. 

Floor  and  Walls.  —  2.  A  tiled  floor  if  possible ;  linoleum 
the  next  choice ;  small  rugs  which  can  be  easily  dried. 

Walls,  tiled  or  painted.  Paper  is  not  desirable  even 
when  varnished.  A  hard  wood  wainscoting  simply  oiled, 


18  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

and  walls  and  ceiling  painted  in  uniform  tint  is  excellent. 
A  stencilled  frieze,  or  border  above  the  wainscoting,  of 
very  simple  design,  adds  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  room. 

Plumbing  Fixtures. 

Furnishings. — 3.  A  porcelain-lined  or  an  enamelled-iron 
tub  is  indispensable. 

A  porcelain  closet  with  no  wood  about  it  excepting  the 
seat.  No  cover  is  needed. 

A  washstand  set  on  legs  or  brackets. 

Conveniences.  —  A  neat  rail  with  hooks,  a  towel-rack,  and 
sets  of  shelves  for  small  articles  complete  the  necessary 
furnishings. 

Ventilation.  —  Let  everything  be  light  —  white  if  possible 
—  and  let  the  windows  be  free  to  admit  air  top  and  bottom. 

TOPIC   VIII 
THE  KITCHEN 

The  First  Consideration.  —  Last  though  not  least.  In  actual 
practice  let  it  come  first.  Whatever  money  is  left  after  the 
cellar  and  kitchen  are  furnished  may  be  devoted  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  house.  Leave  "  the  parlor  "  to  the  last.  If  you 
make  the  kitchen  as  sweet  and  clean  and  pretty  as  it  ought 
to  be,  you  need  not  disdain  to  sit  in  it  yourself  nor  to  ask 
your  friends  to  sit  in  it.  If  you  doubt  that  a  kitchen  can 
be  pretty,  read  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield's  description  of  his 
kitchen.  Kead  the  entire  description  of  his  house  and  see 
if  you  think  it  a  house  beautiful. 

Suggestions  for  Furnishing. 

The  Floor.  —  If  you  are  well  off  you  may  have  a  floor 
of  tiles.  The  next  best  thing  is  a  covering  of  linoleum. 

The  Walls.  —  The  walls  should  be  of  tiles,  or  of  glazed 
brick,  or  of  hard  plaster  painted  with  waterproof  paint  or 
varnished. 


THE   HOUSE   BEAUTIFUL  19 

Cupboards. — The  doors  of  the  •  cupboards  should  be  of 
glass  or  should  be  dispensed  with  entirely.  There  should  be 
absolutely  no  hiding  places  for  dust  or  vermin.  Kitchen 
utensils  are  just  as  appropriate  to  the  kitchen  as  candela- 
bra or  vases  to  the  parlor,  and  should  be  kept  scrupu- 
lously clean  and  undisguisedly  displayed  there. 

Good  Taste  in  the  Kitchen.  — Indeed,  Mr.  Morris  used  to 
say  that  our  kitchens  were  about  the  only  rooms  in  our 
houses  furnished  in  good  taste,  because  all  the  articles  there 
are  "  of  good  shape,  declare  their  use,  and  are  appropriate  to 
it"  This  is  one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  true 
decoration. 

Indispensables.  —  A  good,  large,  firm  table  for  the  use  of 
the  cook,  wall  strips  with  hooks  for  hanging  her  utensils- 
within  reach,  and  a  few  good  strong,  plain  chairs,  are  indis- 
pensable furnishings. 

The  Sink  and  its  Surroundings.  —  All  the  water  and  gas 
pipes  should  be  exposed  to  view  and  all  sinks  set  on  legs 
or  brackets.  Have  .no  closets  under  the  sinks. 

Even  with  moderate  means  a  few  tiles  could  be  afforded 
to  floor  the  space  about  the  sink.  Let  them  be  white  — 
gleaming  white  as  everything  about  the  plumbing  should  be 
—  so  that  it  will  betray  the  first  sign  of  uncleanliness. 

Suggestions  about  Additional  Lessons.  —  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  carry  the  illustrations  farther  as  to  separate 
rooms.  The  pupils  may  be  required  to  continue  the  work, 
applying  the  principles  and  laws  advanced.  The  proper 
furnishing  of  the  servant's  room  should  be  considered  equal 
in  importance  to  that  of  any  other  room  in  the  house. 
Closets,  store-rooms,  etc.,  should  also  be  considered. 

Review  the  general  principles  illustrated  up  to  this  point 
and  add  suggestions  as  to  dealing  with  conditions  not 
hitherto  considered  —  such  as  furnishing  a  rented  house 


20  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

where  we  encounter  obstacles  to  the  application   of  right 
principles.     This  may  occupy  a  separate  lesson. 

TOPIC   IX 
MAKING  THE  BEST  OF  IT 

Our  ideal  house  was  above  the  average  of  ordinary  houses 
—  with  fairly  good  woodwork,  good  sanitary  conditions, 
and  no  obstacles  in  the  shape  of  offensive  wall  decorations 
and  stationary  furniture. 

Until  a  new  era  dawns  in  domestic  architecture  the 
woman  who  knows  the  good  from  the  bad,  but  is  compelled 
to  live  in  rented  flats  will  meet  with  many  discouragements, 
and  will  be  forced  to  exercise  all  her  ingenuity  and  philoso- 
phy in  making  the  best  of  it. 

The  First  Thing  to  be  Done.  —  Having  chosen  the  least 
objectionable  house  we  can  find,  we  will  attack  the  floors 
and  woodwork,  fill  up  the  dust-holding  cracks  and  make 
all  as  clean  and  smooth  as  possible. 

Dealing  with  Obstacles.  —  If  there  is  a  long  narrow  entry, 
or  rooms  of  similar  shape  to  deal  with,  we  must  study  what 
furnishings  will  best  modify  the  unpleasing  proportions. 

If  the  walls  and  ceilings  are  covered  with  an  objectionable 
figured  paper,  somewhat  dark,  a  pale  carpet  will  tower  the 
stud  and  produce  an  impression  of  top  heaviness  and  gloom ; 
whereas  a  dark,  rich  carpet  will  do  much  to  lighten  the 
effect.  If  we  have  a  light  carpet  that  we  must  use,  some- 
thing will  be  gained  by  staining  the  floor,  making  the  light 
carpet  into  a  rug  and  using  as  little  of  it  as  possible. 

We  may  further  relieve  the  effect  of  an  obtrusive  paper 
by  using  plain  masses  of  color  in  hangings  and  furniture 
cushions.  Using  the  same  color  and  materials  in  hangings 
and  furniture  produces  an  impression  of  unity  and  tends  to 
give  an  air  of  spaciousness. 


THE   HOUSE  BEAUTIFUL  21 

Right  Principles  in  the  Selection  of  Color.  —  Select  for  each 
room  the  color  that  will  best  accord  with  the  background  of 
floor  and  wall  and  let  that  be  the  dominant  tone,  making 
all  else  accord  with  it.  So  far  as  possible  use  warm  colors 
for  north  and  west  rooms,  and  cool  colors  for  south  and  east 
rooms.  The  fewer  colors  used  the  more  pleasing  and  rest- 
ful is  the  impression  produced. 

If  a  papering  is  very  bad  in  color  or  pattern  take  it  off 
and  repaper  the  walls.  It  is  not  difficult  work,  and  many  a 
woman  has  done  it. 

Aids  to  the  Cultivation  of  Taste.  —  In  general,  avoid  deco- 
ration schemes  offered  in  the  papers  and  magazines.  Master 
the  few  principles  of  good  taste  and  test  your  individual 
likings  by  them.  We  do  not  always,  without  training,  like 
the  best.  It  would  be  a  good  plan  to  turn  from  time  to 
time  to  Owen  Jones's  "Grammar  of  Ornament"  and  read 
over  the  "  General  Principles  in  the  Arrangement  of  Form 
and  Color."  They  are  easily  understood  and  many  of  them 
apply  directly  to  the  decoration  of  the  home. 

A  Word  to  the  Teacher.  —  The  process  of  house  furnishing, 
which  is  really  a  simple  and  intelligible  thing,  has  been 
complicated  by  the  endeavor  to  follow  the  fashions  prevail- 
ing at  various  times.  At  present  a  feeling  of  more  indepen- 
dence is  growing  up;  do  all  in  your  power  to  strengthen 
this  feeling  in  your  pupils. 

Necessary  Lessons.  —  The  lessons  should  include  instruc- 
tion in  the  systematic  care  of  the  house ;  they  should  also 
embrace  the  subject  of  materials  to  the  extent  of  giving  the 
housekeeper  such  knowledge  as  will  enable  her  to  tell  good 
quality  from  bad,  and  to  know  the  best  way  of  caring  for 
each  article  of  furniture  and  adornment. 


22  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

TOPIC    X 
THE  USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  ORNAMENT 

Trashy  ornament  and  fancy  articles  are  among  the  most 
formidable-  enemies  to  the  formation  of  taste.  We  must 
therefore  try  to  inculcate  some  right  ideas  upon  this  subject. 

The  Universality  of  Ornament.  —  Call  attention  to  the  uni- 
versality of  ornament.  The  doors,  the  windows,  the  desks 
in  the  school,  the  furniture  in  the  home,  the  vehicles  on  the 
streets,  every  article  of  common  use  —  all  have  some  mould- 
ing, or  turning,  or  carving,  or  trimming  which  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  actual  use  of  the  object,  but  which  is  in- 
tended solely  for  ornament  —  to  make  the  objects  more 
pleasing  to  those  who  use  them  —  and,  it  should  be,  to  those 
who  make  them. 

If  we  look  about  us  in  our  homes  we  can  see  how  many 
useless,  meaningless  things  we  have  —  things  which  can 
afford  us  no  lasting  pleasure,  and  which  could  have  given 
none  to  the  makers. 

Things  in  which  Ornament  interferes  with  Use.  —  There  are 
the  cushions,  pillows,  and  footstools  beaded,  spangled,  and 
bef rilled  so  that  we  carefully  push  them  aside  when  we  are 
in  need  of  such  things;  there  are  the  monstrous  lamp-shades 
of  silk  and  lace,  or  crimped  paper,  which  threaten  nightly 
conflagrations  and  serve  to  produce  spasms  of  apprehension 
in  those  who  attempt  to  make  a  light ;  chairs  too  fine  to  use, 
and  many  another  monument  to  wasted  money  and  labor. 

A  Waste  of  Fine  Materials.  —  Then  there  are  the  fancy  arti- 
cles in  which  fine  materials  are  misused  to  represent  forms 
utterly  incongruous  with  those  materials ;  such  as  red  velvet 
fiddles  and  banjos  with  gold  cord  strings  (note  others  at  the 
fancy  goods  counters  at  holiday  seasons). 

Things  in  the  Wrong  Place.  —  There  are  strange  conceits 


THE   HOUSE    BEAUTIFUL  23 

in  table  appliances :  such  as  coal-scuttles  and  buckets  for 
sugar  holders ;  beehives  and  tubs  for  butter  dishes ;  silver 
owls,  with  myriads  of  cruel  holes  punched  in  their  heads, 
for  pepper  and  salt  dusters.  —  Surely  no  real  pleasure  can 
be  taken  in  such  things,  and  they  are  less  convenient  than 
the  plain  simple  vessels  whose  places  they  have  usurped. 

Meaningless  Trifles.  —  Then  there  are  the  meaningless 
trifles  we  set  about  on  our  tables  and  shelves  for  "orna- 
ments "  —  such  as  vases  and  tea-cups  that  will  hold  nothing ; 
tea-pots  in  the  forms  of  birds  and  dragons,  and  numberless 
other  absurdities. 

A  Test  of  Fitness.  — I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  we  may  not 
have  ornaments  of  fine  workmanship  and  material  made  in 
any  of  these  forms,  but  the  vase  must  be  adapted  to  hold 
flowers  and  the  cup  to  hold  tea,  because  holding  something 
is  the  office  of  these  things ;  we  may  also  have  ornaments 
in  the  forms  of  birds  and  dragons,  'but  they  should  not  be 
turned  into  tea-pots.  This  is  Mr.  Morris's  meaning  when 
he  declares,  "  No  article  is  beautiful  unless  it  is  also  useful." 

These  lists  can  be  multiplied  and  a  great  deal  of  harmless 
amusement  gotten  out  of  them. 

Simplicity  and  Economy.  —  Make  a  strong  plea  for  sim- 
plicity and  economy  in  the  household.  Apart  from  the 
question  of  good  taste,  the  superfluous  articles  with  which 
we  load  our  houses  add  to  the  burden  of  whoever  has  to 
care  for  them  and  take  money  which  could  be  better  spent. 

The  "  Lesser  Arts."  — It  will  add  to  the  interest  and  value 
of  the  lesson  to  picture  those  times  in  the  world's  history 
when  it  was  consciously  sought  to  make  the  common  things 
of  life  beautiful ;  when  the  potter,  the  carver,  the  metal 
worker,  the  weaver,  the  embroiderer  were  all  artists  in  their 
way.  We  speak  of  their  work  as  the  "  lesser  arts  "  as  com- 
pared with  the  statue  and  the  painting ;  but  there  was  no 
such  separation  between  them  as  there  is  to-day.  Many  of 


24  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

the  great  painters  were  goldsmiths,  and  many  of  the  sculp- 
tors, stone  carvers.  Botticelli  decorated  the  panels  of  linen 
closets.  Benvenuto  Cellini  chiselled  book  clasps  and  drink- 
ing cups.  The  renowned  Dutch  painter,  Hans  Holbein, 
decorated  the  fronts  of  houses  and  painted  fashion-plates 
for  ladies'  costumes. 

Show  pictures  illustrating  these  facts,  and  wherever  pos- 
sible visit  museums  that  contain  beautiful  examples  of 
household  furniture  or  ornament. 

The  Truths  summed  up.  —  Gather  up  the  vital  truths  of 
this  lesson  in  some  such  statements  as  the  following :  — 

1.  It  is  one  function  of  art  to  give  pleasure  in  the  common 
things  of  life  by  giving  them  beauty  of  form,  of  pattern,  and 
of  color. 

2.  Decoration  must  never  interfere  with  use. 

3.  The  first  law  of  good  taste  is  fitness;  and  no  amount 
of  beauty  in  the  material  or  of  excellence  in  the  workman- 
ship can  compensate  for  a  lack  of  this  quality  in  an  object 
of  decoration. 

4.  Lasting  pleasure  can  be  found  only  in  thoroughly  use- 
ful and   well-constructed  things,   made   out  of   good  and 
suitable  material,  appearing  in  their  appropriate  places  and 
fulfilling  their  proper  uses. 

5.  Keep  nothing  in  your  house  that  is  not  either  useful 
or  beautiful. 

Kead,  and  let  the  pupils  read,  a  little  book  by  Lucy  Crane 
containing  six  lectures  on  "Art  and  the  Formation  of  Taste." 
The  first  two  lectures  bear  on  the  present  subject,  and  are 
very  interesting  and  suggestive. 

The  teacher  will  find  many  suggestions  —  especially  on 
the  historical  part  of  House  Decoration  —  in  Wharton  and 
Codman's  "  The  Decoration  of  Houses  "  (Scribner's,  1898). 

It  need  scarcely  be  said  to  the  intelligent  teacher  that  the 


THE   HOUSE  BEAUTIFUL  25 

hints  on  furnishing  and  decorating  here  given  are  not  in- 
tended to  be  complete.  Much  has  been  omitted,  partly  from 
lack  of  space ;  and  partly  because  the  information  can  easily 
be  supplied  by  the  teacher. 

The  sole  aim  of  the  lessons  is  to  arouse  in  the  pupils  a 
desire  to  make  the  home  a  place  from  which  all  beautiful 
influences  shall  emanate.  And  the  sole  aim  of  this  chapter 
is  to  unfold  to  the  teacher  a  plan  that  has  been  satisfactorily 
used  by  the  writer. 

" It  is  not  instruction  but  provocation  that  one  mind  can  give 
to  another" 


OCTOBER 

I.     THE   KITCHEN 

II.     ADVANCED   COURSE  : 
STARCHY  FOODS  AND  HOW  TO  COOK  THEM 

BY  ABBY  LILLIAN  MARLATT,  M.Sc., 

MEMBER  OF  THE  AMERICAN  CHEMICAL  SOCIETY, 

LATE  PROFESSOR  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  IN  THE  UTAH  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 

NOW  TEACHER  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING  HIGH  SCHOOL, 

PROVIDENCE,  K.I. 


CHAPTER   II 
THE  KITCHEN 

THE  KITCHEN  IN  ART 

Dutch  Kitchen,  Maes,  London  ;  Dutch  Kitchen,  Dou,  Louvre,  Paris  ; 
The  Spinner^  Dou,  Munich  ;  Angel's  Kitchen,  Murillo,  Louvre,  Paris. 

THE  KITCHEN  IN  LITERATURE 

The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  Chapter  IV ;  Adam  Bede,  Mrs.  Peyser's 
Kitchen ;  Private  Life  of  the  Romans,  Preston  and  Dodge ;  Outlines, 
M.  C.  Ames,  p.  200;  Lippincott's  Magazine,  Vol.  2,  p.  312;  Cosmo- 
politan Magazine,  May,  1899. 

THE  SCHOOL  KITCHEN 

Boston  School  Kitchen,  American  Kitchen  Magazine,  Vol.  5,  p.  211 ; 
Model  School  Kitchen,  Vol.  6,  p.  260. 

Equipment.  —  The  kitchen  must  be  so  planned  and 
equipped  that  it  will  be  easy  to  keep  it  (1)  clean,  (2)  well 
ventilated  and  fairly  cool. 

1.    (a)  It  should  not  be  too  large. 

(b)  The  floor  should  be  tiled ;  or  of  hard  wood,  oiled, 
with  all  cracks  filled  with  plaster ;  or  if  the  floor  is  an  old 
one  and  of  the  kind  impossible  to  keep  clean  without  hours 
of  labor,  then  cover  it  with  linoleum.  The  use  of  a  carpet 
cannot  be  defended. 

No  cracks  should  be  allowed  to  exist  either  in  the  floor 
itself  or,  worst  of  all,  at  the  junction  of  the  mopboard  and 
floor. 

29 


30  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

(c)  All  woodwork  should  be  oiled  and  should  be  without 
ledges  to  catch  the  dust  and  dirt. 

(d)  The  walls   must   either   be  painted  or  else  covered 
with  a  washable  paper. 

(e)  The   sink   should   be   of   soapstone   or   else  of  iron, 
porcelain  lined.     If  a  wooden  sink  must  be  used,  line  it 
with  zinc.     Whatever  the  material,  it  must  never  be  en- 
closed.    The  pipes  must  be  in  full  view  and  painted  white. 
For  traps  see  the  section  on  cleaning. 

The  sink  should  be  broad  at  one  end  and  there  should  be 
a  draining  shelf,  inclining  slightly  toward  the  sink. 

(/)  Tables  neatly  covered  with  white  enamel  cloth  save 
much  labor ;  but  their  use  necessitates  several  smooth, 
hard  wood  boards,  or  asbestos  mats,  on  which  to  place  the 
hot  dishes  used  in  cooking. 

2.  The  kitchen  windows  should  be  large,  easily  opened 
above  and  below,  and  entirely  screened.  There  ought  to 
be  other  means  of  carrying  off  the  odor  of  cooking.  The 
modern  kitchens  make  use  of  the  laboratory  expedient  and 
cook  under  a  hood  ventilated  into  the  flue  of  the  Chimney. 

Furniture.  —  The  range  is  the  most  important  piece  of 
furniture  and  should  be  the  best  possible.  It  is  discussed 
in  full  later. 

The  cooking  utensils  are  made  of  iron,  of  steel,  of  enam- 
elled ware,  of  aluminium,  of  tin,  of  wood,  of  glass,  of  stone- 
ware, of  earthenware,  and  common  crockery. 

The  advantage  of  iron  and  steel  for  cooking  dishes  is 
that  they  are  not  injured  by  a  high  temperature,  and  that 
they  grow  smoother  with  use;  but  they  cannot  be  used 
in  cooking  foods  containing  an  acid,  —  fruits,  for  example. 
They  are  heavy,  too,  and  need  extra  care  to  keep  them  free 
from  rust. 

Enamelled  ware,  if  of  the  best  quality,  is  very  satisfactory. 
The  basis  is  iron  on  which  is  fused  the  enamel  at  a  high 


THE  KITCHEN  31 

temperature.  But  do  not  be  persuaded  into  buying  "sec- 
onds." 

Cheap  tinware  is  poor  sheet-iron  plated  with  a  thin  layer 
of  tin.  This  soon  wears  off  and  the  iron  beneath  rusts. 

Block  tin,  however,  which  is  made  of  sheet  tin,  may  be 
depended  upon  to  wear  well.  It  is  expensive  -in  its  first 
cost,  but  economical  in  the  long  run. 

The  advantage  of  tinware  lies  in  its  lightness,  and  its 
disadvantage  is  that  it  melts  at  a  comparatively  low  tem- 
perature. For  this  reason  it  should  never  be  used  for 
frying,  nor  put  on  the  fire  without  having  the  bottom 
covered  with  some  liquid. 

Woodenware  is  light,  but  absorbs  grease  and  odors. 
For  this  reason  it  should  be  used  as  little  as  possible.  But 
there  is  nothing  better  for  stirring  than  a  wooden  spoon. 

Method.  —  As  a  preparation  for  the  study  of  the  kitchen, 
the  girls  might  be  required  to  bring  -in  plans  of  the  home 
kitchen,  lists  of  the  utensils,  classifying  them  according  to 
the  materials  from  which  they  are  made. 

Exhibitions  of  various  articles  in  bad  condition  will  be 
useful,  provided  they  are  made  a  means  of  leading  them  to 
see  the  causes  that  have  led  to  their  destruction  and  the 
means  by  which  it  might  have  been  avoided. 

The  object  of  this  preliminary  lesson  is  to  interest  the 
girls  in  the  kitchen  and  to  make  them,  unconsciously  to 
themselves,  study  that  room  in  their  own  house. 

This  chapter  has  been  divided  into  two  sections :  the  first 
of  which  deals  with  heat,  combustion,  fuel,  fire,  and  the 
range;  and  the  second  with  cleaning,  including  a  slight 
study  of  plumbing. 


32  HANDBOOK  Otf  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

SECTION  I 

FlRE 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Fire. — Creation  Myths  of  Primitive  America,  Curtin ;  Old  Greek 
Stories,  Baldwin  (The  Story  of  Prometheus)  ;  Open  Fireplace  in  All 
Ages,  Putnam ;  The  Sun,  Young ;  Text-book  of  Physics,  Hall  and 
Bergen ;  Chemistry  in  Daily  Life,  Lassar  and  Cohn ;  Organic  Chem- 
istry and  Inorganic  Chemistry,  Reinsen ;  Heating  and  Ventilating 
Buildings,  Carpenter ;  Fire  Worship,  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Vol. 
10,  p.  17  ;  Public  Opinion,  Vol.  14,  p.  251 ;  Evolution  of  Methods  of 
Heating  and  Cooking,  American  Kitchen  Magazine,  Vol.  3,  p.  51  ; 
History  of  the  Fireplace,  Chambers's  Journal,  Vol.  3. 

HEAT 

Facts :  History  of  Fire.  —  Man  has  been  denned  as  the 
cooking  animal,  as  he  alone  seems  to  have  produced  heat  by 
artificial  means.  Earliest  historical  records  show  that  fire 
was  known  and  used  by  primitive  man,  and  to-day  there  is 
no  tribe,  however  savage,  that  does  not  understand  its  use. 

Early  Egyptians,  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans  had  their 
public  fire  kept  constantly  burning,  while  in  our  continent 
the  ancient  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  had  their  sacred  fires 
on  large  pyramids.  Early  religions  held  the  fire  as  a  sacred 
symbol  of  the  greater  source  of  all  heat,  the  sun.  Greek 
mythology  tells  of  the  bringing  of  fire  from  the  sun's  chariot 
by  Prometheus,  and  .the  punishment  which  followed  the 
sacrilege.  So  sacred  was  fire  that  the  priests  or  the  vestal 
virgins,  whose  duty  it  was  to  watch  the  fires,  were  held  in 
awe  by  the  populace. 

Theories  of  Heat. — Heat  was  at  one  time  considered  a 
material  substance  which  might  enter  into  or  depart  from  a 
body,  and  the  terms  which  to-day  are  used  in  discussing  heat 
were  based  on  this  erroneous  idea  of  heat's  material  existence. 


THE   KITCHEN  33 

Nature  of  Heat.  —  It  is  now  believed  that  every  physical 
body  consists  of  a  mass  of  minute  particles,  individual,  invisi- 
ble, called  molecules,  which  are  in  a  state  of  constant  motion, 
and  that  a  rise  in  temperature  is  accompanied  by  an  increased 
motion  and  consequent  friction  among  these  molecules. 

By  friction  of  one  body  upon  another  we  may  so  set  up 
motion  in  these  particles  that  the  temperature  will  be  in- 
creased as  shown  by  the  melting  of  ice  when  one  piece  is 
violently  rubbed  upon  another,  or  by  the  heat  manifested 
when  one  piece  of  wood  is  rubbed  briskly  against  another. 

Temperature.  —  The  rate  of  motion  of  these  particles  is 
proportional  to  the  intensity  of  the  heat.  This  heat  in- 
tensity may  be  measured  by  a  thermometer  and  is  called 
temperature.  There  will  be  a  heat  not  sensible  by  the  ther- 
mometer, and  known  as  latent  heat.  Because  of  this  latent 
heat  the  temperature  of  a  body  does  not  indicate  the  amount 
of  heat  contained  in  it  any  more  than  the  height  of  a  body 
would  alone  determine  its  weight. 

Latent  Heat.  —  The  amount  of  latent  heat  is  dependent  on 
the  property  of  the  body  to  absorb  heat  without  showing 
any  change  in  temperature.  As  an  example,  may  be  noted 
the  heat  necessary  to  evaporate  water  by  rapid  boiling  while 
all  the  time  the  temperature  of  the  water  remains  unchanged. 
The  radiant  energy  of  the  sun  —  supposed  to  be  the  source 
of  all  possible  energy  in  matter,  may  be  shown  by  concen- 
trating the  sun's  rays  on  white  paper  by  means  of  a  convex 
lens,  and  noting  the  charred  effect  or  even  the  flame  pro- 
duced if  the  sunshine  is  bright  enough. 

It  is  computed  that  were  the  sun  to  be  extinguished,  all 
terrestrial  life,  in.  less  than  a  month,  would  cease  to  exist. 
This  radiant  energy,  coming  as  it  does  in  waves  produced  by 
molecular  motion  in  the  ether,  is  stored  up  in  animal  and 
vegetable  life  to  be  liberated  when  consumed  either  as  food 
or  as  fuel. 


34  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

Daring  this  consumption  the  compounds  are  changed  into 
much  simpler  products,  potential  energy  being  liberated  as 
work  or  as  heat. 

Method.  —  Discuss  the  source  of  all  heat  —  the  sun. 

EXPERIMENT  1.  Rub  two  sticks  together  briskly  or  rub 
two  pieces  of  ice  together. 

EXPERIMENT  2.  Place  cold  water  in  a  large  flask.  Drop 
into  it  a  cube  of  litmus  or  a  crystal  of  potassium  permanga- 
nate. Apply  heat  from  underneath.  The  flask  may  stand 
on  asbestos  mat  over  gas  flame.  Let  the  pupil  watch  the 
motion  in  the  liquid. 

EXPERIMENT  3.  Apply  cloth  wet  in  boiling  water  to  neck 
of  bottle,  in  which  a  glass  stopper  is  tightly  fitted,  or  loosen 
cover  of  Mason  fruit  jar  in  same  way. 

EXPERIMENT  4.  Concentrate  the  sun's  rays  with  convex 
lens  upon  black  paper  or  paper  smoked  by  gas  or  candle 
flame ;  concentrate  rays  upon  white  paper.  Note  the  effect 
on  each.  Explain  the  absorbing  power  of  lampblack  or  any 
other  black  substance. 

EXPERIMENT  5.  Apply  heat  from  gas  flame  to  one  end  of 
brass  or  steel  wire  on  which,  at  regular  intervals,  are  fastened 
small  shot  held  in  position  with  warm  paraffin.  As  the  heat 
is  transmitted  the  melting  of  the  fat  causes  shot  to  fall. 

Let  the  pupils  perform  these  experiments  individually  if 
this  is  possible.  Be  sure  not  only  that  they  see  the  result, 
but  also  that  they  understand  the  deductions  to  be  made 
from  these  results,  and  above  all  the  general  principles  thus 
illustrated. 

COMBUSTION 

Facts.  —  The  liberation  of  energy  when  accompanied  by 
the  evolution  of  light  and  heat,  or  heat  alone,  is  known  as 
combustion.  In  the  restricted  sense  combustion  is  produced 
whenever  the  oxygen  of  the  air  unites  with  another  element 
or  compound  with  consequent  evolution  of  heat.  The  heat 


THE   KITCHEN  35 

and  light  obtained  from  combustion  is  a  result  of  oxidation 
of  carbon  or  hydrogen  or  both.  These,  therefore,  are  the 
essential  elements  in  fuels.  The  oxygen  present  in  some 
fuels,  as  in  wood,  is  inert  in  the  sense  that  it  may  not  take 
an  active  part  in  the  production  of  heat. 

Since  as  far  as  is  known  nothing  in  the  physical  world  is 
ever  destroyed,  during  this  consumption  of  fuel  new  com- 
binations of  the  elements  hydrogen  and  carbon  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  must  be  formed  and  pass  off  as  simpler 
and  usually  invisible  compounds.  Smoke,  which  often  ac- 
companies combustion  of  carbon,  is  not  a  compound,  but 
carbon  in  a  finely  divided  state  —  a  result  of  deficient  supply 
of  oxygen,  and  hence  due  to  lack  of  perfect  oxidation. 

Products  of  Combustion.  C02,  CO,  H20.  —  When  the  union 
of  carbon  with  oxygen  is  not  restricted  by  a  limited  supply 
of  air,  the  resulting  product  is  carbon  dioxid,  formerly 
called  carbonic  acid  gas.  When  the  supply  of  air  is  very 
limited,  the  product  formed  is  carbon  monoxid  —  a  very 
poisonous  gas.  It  is  formed  in  hard  coal  stoves  whenever 
the  air  supply  is  restricted  by  closing  the  drafts  and  may 
be  seen  in  a  state  of  combustion  as  pale  blue  flame  hovering 
over  the  glowing  coal.  Carbon  monoxid  is  also  a  part  of 
what  is  known  as  water  gas.  The  union  of  the  hydrogen 
in  the  fuel  with  the  oxygen  in  the  air  produces  water,  which 
as  water  vapor  passes  with  the  other  products  of  oxidation 
into  the  atmosphere. 

Hydrogen. — Hydrogen  ignites  at  a  much  lower  tempera- 
ture than  carbon,  about  300°  F.  The  heat  of  the  flame  pro- 
duced is  great,  but  there  is  almost  no  light  produced. 

Carbon.  —  On  the  other  hand,  carbon  when  ignited  glows 
but  does  not  produce  a  true  flame,  at  most  only  a  blue  flame, 
which  may  be  due  to  the  oxidation  of  carbon  monoxid  into 
carbon  dioxid. 

When  the  two  are  burned  together  they  produce  a  lumi- 


36  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

nous  flame,  the  light  being  due  to  the  incandescent  condition 
of  finely  divided  carbon.  This  may  be  shown  by  holding  a 
piece  of  porcelain  in  the  flame  of  a  candle  or  by  sifting  pow- 
dered lampblack  or  charcoal  into  the  flame  of  the  Bunsen 
burner.  Hence  flame  to  give  light  as  well  as  heat  must  be 
produced  by  a  fuel  containing  carbon  and  hydrogen. 

Ash.  — Aside  from  smoke,  solid  fuel  leaves  another  visible 
residue  known  as  ashes  or  ash.  Ash  is  composed  of  mineral 
matter  taken  from  the  soil  by  the  vegetation  during  growth. 
It  is  a  very  poor  conductor  of  heat,  absorbing  it  in  large 
quantities.  Smoke  has  the  same  effect,  hence  their  presence 
is  detrimental  if  great  heat  is  to  be  radiated.  The  effect  of 
retention  of  heat  by  ashes  may  be  illustrated  by  cooking  an 
egg  or  a  potato  by  burying  it  in  the  hot  ashes.  The  lack  of 
conducting  power  may  be  shown  by  placing  cool  ashes  on 
the  palm  of  the  hand  so  that  it  will  be  thickly  covered  and 
then  placing  a  live  coal  upon  it. 

Essentials  for  Combustion.  —  There  are  three  essentials  for 
perfect  combustion :  — 

I.  A  supporter  of  combustion. 

II.  A  combustible. 

III.  Sufficient  heat  to  cause  a  union  between  the  combus- 
tible and  the  supporter  of  combustion. 

Supporter.  —  The  supporter  of  combustion  is  nearly  always 
oxygen  as  found  in  the  mixture  air.  The  other  constituents 
of  air  are  all  inert  substances  retarding  combustion,  or  when 
present  in  excess  preventing  it.  Hence  the  necessity  of 
removing  exhausted  air  and  the  products  of  combustion  as 
soon  as  formed.  Their  deadening  action  is  utilized  in  chem- 
ical fire  engines.  A  larger  proportion  of  oxygen  in  the  air 
would  render  life  very  much  less  safe.  "  Spontaneous  com- 
bustion "  would  then  be  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception. 

Method.  —  Combustion. 

Material.  —  Candle,  glass  rod  and  tube,  lime  water. 


THE   KITCHEN  37 

A.  HISTORICAL  DATA. 

(a)   Mythological  stories. 

Greek. 

American  myths. 
(6)   Remains  of  prehistoric  man. 
(c)   Methods  of  ignition. 

Friction  or  striking  flint. 

B.  CHEMISTRY  OF  COMBUSTION. 

EXPERIMENT  6.  Let  each  pupil  observe  the  com- 
bustion of :  — 

A  common  match. 
A  parlor  match. 
A  safety  match. 

And  then  tell  what  she  has  observed  as  to  produc- 
tion of  flame,  method  of  burning,  as  well  as  odor. 
See  the  account  of  matches  under  the  section  on 
fuels.  Light  a  long  splint  and  insert  it  into  a  dry 
test-tube.  Let  pupils  tell  the  reason  for  the  flame 
being  extinguished. 
ESSENTIALS  FOR  COMBUSTION. 

(a)   A  combustible. 

(6)   A  supporter  of  combustion. 

(c)   Heat. 
COMPOSITION  OF  AIR. 

EXPERIMENT  7.  Invert  an  empty  bottle  over  a  lighted 
candle  standing  in  a  dish  of  water.  Let  the  mouth 
of  bottle  rest  below  the  water.  As  air  in  bottle 
has  its  oxygen  exhausted  by  the  burning  candle,  the 
water  rises  to  take  its  place.  By  withdrawing  the 
candle  without  moving  the  bottle,  and  then  slipping 
a  piece  of  glass  over  mouth  of  bottle,  it  may  be 
inverted,  retaining  the  water  which  has  replaced 
the  oxygen  or  part  burned  out.  By  measuring 
the  water  and  then  measuring  capacity  of  bottle. 


38  HANDBOOK   OF  DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

the    ratio    which    supports   combustion    may    be 
shown. 

C.  FLAME. 

EXPERIMENT  8.     Examine  parts  of  a  Bunsen  burner, 

apply  heat  from  heated  wire  to  ignite  the  gas. 
(a)   Carbon  or  yellow  name. 

Study  parts  of  carbon  flame. 
Hold  cold  porcelain  in  yellow  flame  and  ex- 
amine the  deposit. 
Save  deposit  for  next  experiment. 
(6)   Oxygen  or  blue  flame. 

Note  parts  of  flame. 

Sift  into  flame  part  of  black  deposit  from 

preceding  experiment. 
Draw  conclusions  as  to  cause  of  color  and 

of  light  in  carbon  flame. 
COMPOSITION  OF  BLUE  CONE. 

EXPERIMENT  9.     Place  one  end  of  glass  tube  in  blue 
cone  of  oxygen  flame.     Apply  lighted  match  at  the 
other  end  and  note  color  of  flame  produced. 
DIFFERENCE  IN  HEATING  POWER. 

EXPERIMENT  10.  Hold  one  end  of  glass  rod  in  car- 
bon flame  and  note  length  of  time  required  to  raise 
it  to  red  heat. 

Hold  the  other  end  in  oxygen  flame. 
Compare  results. 
Explain  and  state  which  flame  is  to  be  used  in  cooking. 

D.  PRODUCTS  OF  COMBUSTION. 

EXPERIMENT  11.  Water.  Hold  cold  porcelain  or 
granite  ware  in  blue  flame  of  Bunsen  burner  for  a 
minute.  Note  the  moisture  on  the  surface  of  dish. 
(Part  of  moisture  is  doubtless  due  to  water  in  the 
gas.) 


THE  KITCHEN  39 

CARBON  DIOXID  [C02]. 

EXPERIMENT  12.  Light  a  pine  splint,  and  when  it  is 
burning  briskly  lower  the  flame  end  into  a  dry 
empty  bottle  and  partly  cover  the  mouth  with  a 
cardboard.  Let  the  pupils  note  the  effect  upon  the 
lighted  splinter. 

Eeinove  the  splinter  and  add  lime  water  to  the  bottle, 
shake  and  again  examine. 

EXPERIMENT  13.  Let  pupil  breathe  through  glass 
tube  into  lime  water  and  see  if  results  are  similar. 

Explain  necessity  of  removing  C02  in  both  cases. 

FUEL 

When  the  combustible  element  or  compound  is  cheap,  it 
is  known  as  a  fuel.  A  fuel  is  usually  carbon  or  a  compound 
of  carbon. 

Fuels  may  be  divided  into  solids,  as  coal,  wood,  and  prod- 
ucts derived  from  them,  as  charcoal  and  coke;  liquids,  as 
petroleum  and  its  products,  methyl  and  ethyl  alcohol ;  and 
gases,  as  natural  gas,  coal  gas,  water  gas,  and  acetylene  gas. 
Or  they  may  be  divided  according  to  probable  origin,  as 
follows : 

I.  Vegetable  fuels,  as  wood,  and  products  of  wood  dis- 
tillation, as  methyl  or  wood  alcohol,  and  charcoal. 

II.  Mineral  fuels,  as  coal,  subdivided  according  to  com- 
position  into   peat,   lignite,    cannel   coal,   bituminous   and 
anthracite;   and  products  of  coal  distillation,  as  coal  gas, 
water  gas,  and  coke. 

III.  Mineral  oils  and  gases,  as  crude  petroleum,  from 
which  are  derived  naphtha,  gasolene,  benzine,  kerosene,  and 
natural  gas. 

IV.  Product  of  fermentation  known  as  ethyl  alcohol. 
Wood. — Wood,  or  vegetable  fibre,  is  composed  largely  of 


40  HANDBOOK  OF  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

a  carbohydrate,  cellulose,  which  forms  the  cell  wall  of  all 
plant  life.  It  belongs  to  the  carbohydrate  group  because  of 
its  composition;  but  man  cannot  use  it  to  any  extent  for 
food,  as  he  does  most  other  members  of  the  group.  See 
chapter  on  Starches. 

Associated  with  the  cellulose  in  wood  are  varying  amounts 
of  nitrogenous  matter,  resins,  and  coloring  matters,  as  well 
as  the  mineral  products  which'  remain  as  ashes  after  com- 
bustion. In  its  pure  state  cellulose  may  be  found  in  the 
form  of  Swedish  filter  paper.  Less  pure  forms  are  cotton 
and  linen. 

Though  formerly  wood  served  as  the  chief  fuel,  now  in 
the  cities  it  is  used  mainly  as  kindling  and  in  fireplaces. 

Kinds  of  Wood. —  In  the  markets,  wood  is  roughly  classed 
as  either  hard  or  soft. 

Soft  Wood.  —  The  soft  woods,  as  pine,  spruce,  fir,  hemlock, 
cedar,  and  red  wood,  because  of  lighter,  more  spongy  tex- 
ture and  large  amount  of  resin,  burn  very  freely,  producing 
a  quick,  hot  fire.  They  are  therefore  largely  used  as  the 
kindling  in  coal  stoves  or  ranges.  The  charco?,!  formed 
from  soft  wood  is  soft  and  crumbly. 

Hard  Wood.  —  The  harder  woods,  as  oak,  hickory,  ash, 
chestnut,  maple,  birch,  poplar,  elm,  and  walnut,  are  much 
more  dense  in  structure,  contain  no  resin,  and  therefore 
require  a  higher  degree  of  heat  to  ignite  and  are  consumed 
more  slowly,  thus  giving  out  heat  for  a  much  longer  time. 
Because  of  the  small  amount  of  flame  produced  by  combus- 
tion of  these  woods,  and  the  large  amount  of  charcoal 
formed,  they  are  used  in  culinary  operations  where  live 
coals  are  desired. 

A  careful  study  of  their  woody  structure,  and  of  their 
condition  in  the  way  of  dryness,  freedom  from  decay  or 
presence  of  insects,  will  aid  the  investigator  in  gaining 
information  of  economic  value.  If  the  wood  is  damp,  then 


THE  KITCHEN  41 

in  the  change  of  the  sap  or  water  into  the  form  of  vapor 
much  heat  becomes  latent  and  is  wasted,  from  a  culinary 
standpoint.  In  the  beginning  of  combustion  of  wood,  during 
the  flame  stage,  all  of  the  hydrogen  and  part  of  the  carbon 
pass  off  as  water  and  as  carbon  dioxid,  and  much  heat 
goes  with  them,  the  greater  portion  becoming  latent  in 
changing  the  water  to  steam.  In  the  second  or  glowing 
coal  stage,  the  waste  product  is  carbon  dioxid,  which  carries 
off  little  heat.  Therefore  the  greater  the  proportion  of  car- 
bon in  the  wood,  the  higher  its  heating  value. 

Charcoal. —  Wood,  when  subjected  to  excessive  heat  with- 
out free  access  of  air,  gives  up  first  of  all  its  hydrogen  and 
part  of  its  carbon,  mostly  in  the  form  of  flame.  The  remain- 
der of  the  carbon  is  in  the  form  of  glowing  charcoal.  This 
charcoal  is  formed  in  greater  or  less  amounts  in  all  wood 
fires.  If  wood  be  subjected  to  heat  without  access  of  air, 
the  hydrogen  and  other  volatile  products  are  driven  off, 
leaving  almost  all  of  the  carbon  in  a  free  state.  The  sup- 
ply of  charcoal  in  the  market  is  prepared  in  specially  con- 
structed kilns,  so  arranged  that,  besides  producing  charcoal, 
the  volatile  products  of  wood  distillation  are  retained. 

One  of  these  products  is  known  as  methyl,  or  wood 
alcohol.  As  a  rule,  the  denser  the  wood  the  greater  the 
proportion  of  carbon  and  the  more  valuable  the  charcoal 
made  from  it,  providing  the  charcoal  is  for  use  as  fuel  and 
not  for  use  in  the  arts.  Good  charcoal  is  firm,  free  from 
dust,  and  should  break  across  the  fibre  with  a  shining  frac- 
ture. Charcoal  is  burned  in  warmer  countries  in  portable 
stoves  or  fire-boxes,  unprovided  with  either  chimney  or 
draft.  These  fire-pots  are  set  in  the  upper  part  of  crude 
masonry,  thus  forming  a  primitive  range,  each  fire  being 
separate.  In  this  country  charcoal  is  used  to  produce  heat 
for  broiling. 

The  making  of  charcoal  may  be  illustrated  by  heating 


42  HANDBOOK   OF  DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

pine  splints  in  a  test-tube  and  noting  the  products  which 
are  driven  out  of  the  wood  and  the  condition  of  residue. 

Methyl  alcohol,  though  belonging  under  head  of  wood 
products,  will  be  discussed  in  connection  with  the  topic 
ethyl  alcohol. 

Mineral  Fuel. —  Coal  is,  as  far  as  known,  vegetable  growth 
transformed  in  the  past  ages  in  some  way  by  heat  and  press- 
ure into  a  product  richer  in  carbon  and  less  rich  in  inflam- 
mable gases  than  wood.  To  judge  from  results,  the  process 
must  have  been  one  of  slow  distillation. 

Coal  is  found  in  certain  geological  formations,  and  only 
within  certain  limits  is  it  within  reach  of  man.  These 
regions  are  known  as  coal  fields.  From  these  mines  coal  is 
transported  to  all  sections  of  the  country. 

Peat. —  In  our  own  day  the  beginnings  of  this  change 
from  plant  growth  into  coal  is  shown  in  peat  formation, 
where  remains  of  plants  in  bogs  or  on  the  borders  of  shal- 
low pools  fall  and  are  covered  by  water  and  vegetable  pulp 
which  exclude  the  air.  This,  in  connection  with  other  fac- 
tors, prevents  natural  decay,  and  hence  the  mass  continues 
to  accumulate,  becoming  more  dense  from  year  to  year. 
This  partly  transformed  product  is  cut  into  thin  oblong 
blocks,  which  are  dried  in  the  sun  and  used  somewhat  as 
coal  is  used.  The  flame  produced,  because  of  excess  of  hy- 
drocarbons, is  smoky  and  disagreeable. 

For  household  use,  coal  is  divided  into  the  following 
kinds:  peat,  lignite,  cannel,  bituminous,  non-bituminous, 
semi-bituminous,  and  anthracite. 

Lignite. —  Lignite  is  that  coal  formation  which  still  re- 
tains evidence  of  woody  structure.  It  is  usually  brown  in 
color,  but  is  much  nearer  true  coal  than  peat  is. 

Cannel.  —  Cannel  coal  contains  a  very  large  proportion  of 
hydrogen  in  the  form  of  hydrocarbons,  therefore  burning 
with  a  bright  flame.  It  is  usually  dull  black  in  color,  and 


THE  KITCHEN  43 

comes  in  compact,  slablike  pieces.  It  is  found  in  not  many 
places  in  this  country  and,  hence,  is  expensive.  What  is 
found  in  the  market  under  that  name  is  a  semi-bituminous 
coal. 

Bituminous.  —  Bituminous  coal  is  found  in  eastern  United 
States  and,  to  a  small  extent,  in  the  West,  but  the  mines  in 
that  section  produce  what  is  known  as  non-bituminous  coal. 
In  appearance  bituminous  coal  is  compact,  but  inclined  to 
break  into  irregular  fragments  with  bright  shining  fracture. 
As  the  name  implies,  it  is  pitchy  in  'character,  but  this  does 
not  become  apparent  till  during  the  process  of  combustion, 
when  it  seemingly  partially  melts,  and  gas  escapes  from  the 
mass  until  the  remainder  is  almost  pure  carbon.  For  this 
reason  it  is  sometimes  called  caking  coal.  In  the  manufac- 
ture of  coal  gas  this  caking  portion  is  known  as  coke. 

Non-bituminous  coal  resembles  bituminous  coal  in  appear- 
ance, but  lacks  the  property  of  forming  a  fused  mass  in 
burning,  hence,  cannot  be  used  to  produce  coke.  Both  pro- 
duce much  flame  and  smoke  in  burning,  hence  are  objection- 
able on  ground  of  cleanliness. 

Semi-bituminous  coal  lies  in  formation  between  bitumi- 
nous and  anthracite,  possessing  some  of  the  characteristics 
of  both,  burning  with  much  less  flame  than  bituminous,  but 
more  freely  than  anthracite.  Being  fairly  free  from  hydro- 
carbons it  is  a  cleanly  fuel,  and  is  often  used  for  ranges  and 
fireplaces.  It  stands  next  to  anthracite  in  fuel  value. 

Anthracite.  —  Anthracite  coal  is  the  most  compact  of  all 
the  coals,  being  almost  free  from  hydrocarbons  and,  there- 
fore, burns  with  a  slight,  blue  flame.  Unless  very  expen- 
sive this  coal  is  the  most  satisfactory  and  economical  because 
of  its  greater  heating  power  per  ton,  and  because  of  its 
more  uniform  combustion.  It  is  cleanly  and  easily  used 
because  of  uniform  size  of  the  fragments. 

Coke,  like  charcoal,  is  one  of  the  resulting  products  of 


44  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

distillation.  It  is  coal  heated  without  access  of  air,  so  that 
all  the  hydrocarbons  may  be  driven  off.  For  use  in  the  arts 
coke  is  prepared  by  heating  bituminous  coal  in  special  coke 
ovens.  It  is  the  equal  of  anthracite  coal  as  a  source  of  heat. 
Gas  coke,  the  residue  left  on  heating  bituminous  coal  and 
cannel  coal  in  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas,  is  largely  used 
for  household  fuel.  It  is  not  equal  to  anthracite  in  fuel 
value.  Because  of  its  cleanliness,  it  is  preferable  to  bitumi- 
nous coal,  though  it  is  thought  by  some  to  burn  out  grates 
and  fire-boxes  more  rapidly  than  other  fuels. 

Coal  Gas  is  almost  a  pure  hydrocarbon,  and  is  prepared 
by  distilling  any  coal  rich  in  hydrogen.  Under  the  subject 
of  coke  the  coals  most  used  were  mentioned.  Of  all  the 
gases  used  this  is  the  most  perfect  in  its  results. 

Water  Gas.  —  Though  anthracite  coal  cannot  be  used  in 
the  making  of  coal  gas,  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  a  gas  which,  because  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  it  contains 
are  derived  from  water,  is  known  as  water  gas.  Water,  in 
the  condition  of  superheated  steam,  and  vaporized  naphtha 
are  passed  over  glowing  anthracite.  The  carbon  of  the  coal 
has  a  great  attraction  for  the  oxygen  in  the  water,  and  in 
this  heated  condition  they  recombine  to  form  equal  volumes 
of  carbon  monoxid  and  free  hydrogen.  Water  gas,  even 
when  enriched  by  naphtha,  is  not  a  good  gas  for  either 
lighting  or  heating,  being  inferior  to  coal  gas.  The  most 
serious  objection  to  its  use  is  on  the  ground  of  health,  as  the 
carbon  monoxid  is  a  deadly  poison,  "uniting  with  the 
haemoglobin,  of  the  blood  to  the  exclusion  of  the  oxygen. 
A  small  percentage  of  it  has  proved  fatal."  Coal  gas  suffo- 
cates by  reducing  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  room,  but  it 
is  not  a  poison  in  the  sense  water  gas  is. 

Mineral  oil,  or  crude  petroleum,  is  a  hydrocarbon,  similar 
in  composition  to  coal  oil,  which  is  a  crude  oil  distilled  from 
coal.  Nevertheless,  petroleum  wells  seem  to  have  no  direct 


THE   KITCHEN  45 

connection  with  the  coal  in  the  earth.  Whether  it  has 
passed  upward  through  sand  or  shale  strata  during  coal  dis- 
tillation and,  hence,  is  not  in  direct  connection,  has  not  been 
satisfactorily  proved;  but  geologists  generally  agree  that 
petroleum  has  been  derived  from  vegetable  remains  which 
existed  in  past  ages.  The  crude  product  has  been  known  for 
centuries.  The  sacred  fires  of  the  Persians  are  burning  oil 
springs.  It  was  not  till  1859  that '  it  was  discovered  in 
large  quantities  in  western  Pennsylvania. 

Petroleum  is  obtained  by  boring  in  the  same  way  artesian 
wells  are  sunk.  The  dark  crude  oil  flows  or  is  pumped 
from  the  earth  and  may  be  used,  and  is  used  to  some 
extent  in  the  arts  as  fuel,  but  for  household  use  it  is 
subjected  to  fractional  distillation  called  refining.  During 
refining,  gases,  liquids,  and  solids  are  obtained. 

Naphtha  is  the  product  which  distils  between  the  tempera- 
ture of  40°-70°  F. 

Gasolene  between  70°-90°. 

Benzine  between  90°-150°. 

Kerosene  between  150°-280°. 

Lubricating  oils  between  280°-400°. 

The  residue  contains  vaseline,  paraffin,  and  tarry  matters. 
Of  these  gasoline  and  kerosene  are  used  as  household  fuels. 

Gasolene  is  largely  used  as  a  source  of  gas  in  private 
houses  not  connected  with  a  city  system.  When  allowed 
to  mix  with  air  in  its  passage  from  a  receptacle  to  the 
burner  it  forms  what  is  called  air  gas,  used  in  all  forms 
of  gasolene  stoves.  If  the  gasolene  and  air  are  mixed 
in  specially  constructed  apparatus  away  from  the  dwelling, 
and  then  conducted  in  pipes  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  be 
used,  a  very  good  fuel  may  be  obtained.  Its  lighting  and 
fuel  value  are  below  that  of  coal  or  natural  gas. 

Kerosene  should  never  contain  hydrocarbons  which  ignite 
at  a  temperature  below  135°  F.  The  better  grades  should 


46  HANDBOOK  OF  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

not  " flash"  till  warmed  to  150°  F.  Some  states  require 
a  flashing  point  of  200°  F.  It  is  a  question  whether  the 
housekeeper  should  apply  the  standard  test  herself  or  trust 
to  the  dealer.  Miss  Parloa  advises  filling  a  cup  one- 
quarter  full  of  cold  water,  inserting  a  thermometer,  and 
then  adding  boiling  water  till  the  temperature  reaches 
110°  F.  At  this  point  add  two  teaspoons  oil  and  with 
a  lighted  taper  try  to  ignite  the  oil.  If  it  takes  fire,  it 
is  not  safe. 

Kerosene  of  a  high  standard  is  in  the  end  more  economi- 
cal even  though  more  expensive,  as  it  is  more  even  and 
lasting  in  its  combustion. 

Natural  gas  is  a  hydrocarbon  similar  but  not  equal  in 
value  to  good  coal  gas.  It  is  obtained  by  boring  in  the 
same  way  petroleum  wells  are  bored.  Though  not  as- 
sociated together  in  the  earth,  the  general  conclusion  is  that 
coal,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas  must  have  a  similar  origin. 
In  regions  where  it  is  found,  natural  gas  is  used  for  heat- 
ing, lighting,  and  cooking,  proving  a  very  ideal  fuel. 

Acetylene  gas  is  not  a  natural  product,  being  made  artifi- 
cially by  action  of  water  on  calcium  carbid,  CaC2.  It  burns 
with  an  intense  white  light ;  but  at  present  its  use  as  a  fuel 
is  problematical,  as  it  has  proved,  under  perhaps  careless  use, 
very  explosive.  Some  authorities  state  that  there  is  some 
acetylene  gas  formed  in  the  inner  cone  of  gas  and  candle 
flames,  and  that  light  is  largely  due  to  its  presence. 

Alcohols.  —  Besides  the  wood  alcohol  which  is  produced 
by  destructive  distillation  of  wood,  there  is  a  second 
alcohol  produced  by  fermentation.  This  alcoholic  product 
of  fermentation  is  called  ethyl  alcohol  or  spirits  of  wine. 
Both  alcohols  are  very  volatile  and  should  be  closely  stop- 
pered. They  burn  with  a  faint  blue  flame,  producing  a  fair 
amount  of  heat.  They  may  be  used  in  chafing-dish  burners 
as  well  as  in  lamps.  The  objection  to  wood  alcohol  is  that 


THE  KITCHEN  47 

often  there  is  an  unpleasant  odor  connected  with  its  use, 
and  it  is  thought  to  be  a  poison,  hence  is  used  only  as  a 
fuel,  never  as  a  solvent  in  food  or  medicine  as  ethyl  alcohol 
may  be  used. 

Alcohol  may  be  burned  through  a  wick  or  from  an 
asbestos  pad.  The  later  method  is  wasteful,  as  if  any 
alcohol  is  unused  it  cannot  be  saved. 

Method.  —  In  oral  language  lessons  •  and  in  reading  give 
the  children  the  history  of  such  of  these  fuels  as  are  used 
in  their  own  homes.  Secure  from  them  and  for  them 
specimens  for  study  and  exhibition.  Lay  special  emphasis 
on  the  comparative  fuel  value  and  cost  of  these  materials, 
letting  them  deduce  these  facts  from  their  own  observations 
and  experiments. 


THE  KANGE:  THEORY,  HISTORY  OF  ITS   EVOLUTION,   AND 
PRACTICAL  WORK 

Kindling  Point.  —  At  ordinary  temperatures  very  few 
substances  unite  readily  with  oxygen,  but  require  a  very 
high  degree  of  heat  before  chemical  union  can  take  place. 
This  degree  varies  with  each  substance  and  is  known  as  its 
kindling  point. 

Because  of  its  extremely  low  kindling  point,  phosphorus 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  matches.  The  ordinary 
match  is  a  splint  of  wood,  one  end  of  which  is  dipped 
in  melted  sulphur  and  then  tipped  with  a  paste  of  phos- 
phorus, potassium  nitrate,  or  potassium  chlorate  and  glue. 
Coloring  matter  may  be  added  to  the  paste.  If  potassium 
chlorate  is  the  oxidizing  agent,  the  match  snaps  and  burns 
vigorously  when  friction  is  applied.  This  union  of  the 
phosphorus  with  the  oxygen,  which  is  loosely  held  by 
the  oxidizing  agent,  produces  enough  heat  to  ignite  the 
sulphur.  The  heated  sulphur  unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the 


48  HANDBOOK  OF  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

air,  forming  sulphur  dioxid,  odor  of  burning  sulphur  match. 
The  burning  of  the  sulphur  in  turn  ignites  the  wood. 

Safety  matches  do  not  contain  phosphorus,  but  in  place 
of  it  antimony  sulphid  is  used.  The  ignition  is  produced  by 
scratching  upon  a  special  surface  coated  with  red  phospho- 
rus and  sand. 

The  ignition  of  the  match  gives  a  fair  illustration  of  the 
steps  in  the  production  of  all  flame  from  fuels  j  namely, 
a  product  rich  in  hydrogen  and  carbon,  a  fair  amount 
of  oxygen,  and  a  temperature  sufficiently  high  to  cause 
separation  of  the  hydrogen  and  carbon  compounds  into 
their  elements,  and  a  reunion  with  oxygen  to  form  the 
simple  compounds  water  and  carbon  dioxid. 

In  historical  and  comparatively  recent  times  the  produc- 
tion of  igneous  combustion  was  a  serious  problem,  as  heat 
sufficient  to  ignite  even  the  most  finely  divided  fuel,  as 
tinder,  could  be  provided  only  by  striking  steel  against  flint 
or  pyrite,  or  even  rubbing  two  sticks  together  vigorously. 
Now  the  problem  is  much  simplified,  as  the  friction  on 
the  match  causing  it  to  ignite  furnishes  heat  enough  to 
ignite  paper  or  finely  divided  wood  or  shavings. 

Gas,  oil,  or  semisolids  are .  largely  composed  of  hydro- 
carbons, which  when  heated  to  their  kindling  point  unite 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  forming  water  and  carbon  dioxid. 
If  the  supply  of  oxygen  is  not  adequate,  the  elements  form 
free  hydrogen,  marsh  gas  (CH4),  and  carbon  monoxid,  be- 
sides, leaving  some  carbon  in  a  glowing  state-.  This  glowing 
carbon  is  what  gives  the  yellow  color  and  furnishes  light 
in  the  candle  and  in  the  carbon  flame.  The  heat  generated 
by  the  burning  wick  in  the  candle  melts  the  fat  (paraffin  or 
stearin),  and  this  liquid  being  drawn  up  through  the  fibres  in 
the  wick  is  slowly  changed  from  liquid  to  gaseous  state,  and 
as  the  gases  expand  they  pass  to  the  outer  portion  of  the 
flame,  there  mingling  with  the  air  and  being  heated  to  igni- 


THE  KITCHEN  49 

X^CAUFOH^X^ 

tion  point  unite  with  the  oxygen  to  form  carbon  dioxid  and 
water.  In  the  second  cone  the  proportion  of  oxygen  being 
small  part  of  the  carbon,  though  heated  to  the  glowing  stage, 
does  not  form  a  chemical  union  till  it  reaches  the  outer  cone. 
The  light  is  due  to  incandescent  carbon  particles. 

This  change  from  liquid  to  gaseous  state  is  true  in  the  case 
of  oil  combustion,  hence  the  wick  in  either  lamp  or  oil  stove 
should  be  loosely  woven  and  fitted  perfectly  without  crowd- 
ing or  excess  of  air  space  in  burner,  otherwise  air  passing 
into  the  partly  filled  receptacle  and  mingling  with  the  gas 
formed  may  ignite,  causing  an  explosion.  This  explosion  in 
miniature  occurs  when  the  tube  of  a  Bunsen  burner  becomes 
heated  and  "catches  back,"  that  is,  ignites  at  lower  orifices. 
This  occurs  when  gas  is  turned  very  low  and  there  is  not 
enough  pressure  to  force  the  gas  rapidly  upward  through 
the  tube. 

Perfect  Combustion.  —  The  quantity  of  oxygen  required  to 
produce  perfect  combustion  with  most  even  production  of 
heat  theoretically  has  been  demonstrated  with  carbon  and 
with  hydrogen  separately.  The  results  seem  to  show  that 
excessive  supplies  of  air  are  very  wasteful  of  heat,  for 
though  the  fuel  is  entirely  consumed  a  large  percentage  of 
the  heat  liberated  passes  up  the  flue  with  the  excessive 
draft.  If  not  enough  air  passes  into  the  burning  fuel  part 
of  the  carbon  passes  off  as  smoke,  which  is  not  only  wasteful 
but  actively  detrimental,  as  the  smoke  collecting  in  the  flues 
interferes  with  the  circulation  as  well  as  prevents  proper 
conduction  of  the  heat.  The  quantity  of  air  is  regulated  by 
openings  in  the  apparatus,  and  a  little  experience  and  watch- 
fulness soon  demonstrates  the  proper  control  of  these  open- 
ings. 

Evolution  of  Cooking  Apparatus.  —  Probably  primitive  man, 
like  his  prototype  to-day,  cooked  his  food  before  or  over  the 
open  fire  or  buried  it  in  the  hot  ashes  and  glowing  embers 


50  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

as  is  done  by  campers.  References  in  Homer  seem  to 
indicate  that  even  then  the  cooking  of  meats  was  before  the 
open  fire  and  not  in  a  pot  suspended  over  the  coals.  It  is 
probable  that  coating  fish  or  fowl  with  wet  clay  or  mud,  and 
then  covering  them  with  live  coals,  first  suggested  the  possi- 
bility of  making  a  permanent  covering  and  resulted  in  the 
making  of  crude  pottery  as  well  as  the  crude  ovens  which 
were  heated  by  being  placed  in  the  hot  ashes  and  the  top 
covered  with  live  coals,  much  as  the  Dutch  ovens  were  and 
are  used  now. 

The  modern  baking  apparatus,  however  evolved,  is  ar- 
ranged for  the  use  of  coal,  oil,  or  gas,  seldom  for  the  use  of 
wood  only.  The  modern  range  may  be  so  constructed  that 
by  changing  the  parts  in  the  fire-box  any  of  the  fuels  may  be 
employed. 

Electricity.  —  The  latest  form  of  apparatus  is  heated  by 
means  of  the  electric  current.  The  objection  to  this  appa- 
ratus is  its  excessive  cost.  As  far  as  the  heat  for  cooking  is 
concerned,  the  cost  of  heat  obtained  directly  from  the  coal 
is  more  than  that  derived  from  the  electric  current,  for, 
though  in  transforming  energy  liberated  by  burning  coal 
into  electrical  energy  available  for  heating,  only  about 
four  per  cent  is  applied,  practically  all  of  that  is 
utilized  in  the  cooking  apparatus.  On  the  other  hand,  of 
the  total  amount  of  heat  liberated  in  the  coal  range  only 
one  *  per  cent  is  utilized  in  cooking.  Comparing  the  cost 
of  the  electric  current  used  in  lighting  with  gas  used,  when 
the  cost  for  electricity  is  ten  cents  per  thousand  watt  hours, 
it  is  about  equivalent  to  gas  at  $1.25  per  thousand  feet. 
Considering  that  in  the  gas  stove  much  heat  liberated  is 
not  used,  the  obvious  conclusion  seems  to  be  in  favor  of 
the  use  of  electricity.  If  the  apparatus  is  ever  constructed 
so  as  to  be  sold  at  reasonable  price,  then  electricity  as  a 
*  "  Heating  and  Lighting."  —CARPENTER. 


THE    KITCHEN  51 

source  of  heat  will  stand  first  in  the  list  for  use  in  cookery. 
Under  present  conditions  coal  will  be  used  for  a  long  time  to 
come. 

Range.  —  A  good  range  should  answer  to  the  following :  — 

(1)  drafts  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible ; 

(2)  checks  and   dampers   arranged   so   that  the  cook  may 

control  rate  of  combustion  at  will; 

(3)  large  oven  space  for  size  of  range ; 

(4)  evenness  in  temperature  in  all  parts  of  the  oven ; 

(5)  arrangements  for  broiling ; 

(6)  fire-box  large  enough  to  admit  coal  to  depth  of  seven 

inches. 

(7)  *  Top  part  of  stove  all  available  for  cooking  at  boiling 

temperature ; 

(8)  double  shaker,    so   that   grate  may  be  cleaned  easily 

(duplex  grate  is  good) ; 

(9)  hot  water  back  so  arranged  that  a  large  supply  of  hot 

water  is  always  available. 

Gas  Range.  —  Gas  range  should  occupy  a  small  floor  space, 
and  yet  the  following  be  true :  — 

(1)  oven  large ; 

(2)  good  place  for  broiling ; 

(3)  room  on  top  for  heating  several  products  at  once ; 

(4)  one  or  more  small  burners,  so  that  gas  may  not  escape 

by  using  a  large  burner  with  gas  turned  partly  off, 
as  otherwise  must  be  done  while  simmering. 

(5)  pipe  connecting  with  chimney  to  remove   products   of 

combustion. 

Loss  of  Heat.  —  The  loss  in  heating  power  available  from 

a  range  is  largely  due  to  nature  of  heat  itself,  but  in  a 

measure  is  due  to  faulty  construction,  improper  material,  and 

lack  of  intelligent  attention  to  obvious  details  on  part  of  user. 

*Culiuet  Range. 


52  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

A  review  of  the  subject  will  aid  in  drawing  important  con- 
clusions. "  Heat  passes  from  a  warmer  body  to  a  colder  by 
three  general  methods,  —  radiation,  conduction,  and  convec- 
tion." 

Radiation.  —  Radiant  heat  passes  in  waves  directly  in 
straight  lines  from  the  heated  surface  till  absorbed  by  some 
body  in  its  path.  Air,  except  that  containing  large  amount 
of  water  vapor,  does  not  absorb  it.  Radiant  heat  may  be 
reflected  from  metallic  surfaces,  but  is  transmitted  by  cer- 
tain substances,  as  glass  and  liquids.  Being  received 
directly  from  the  source,  radiant  heat  is  of  a  high  tempera- 
ture. The  amount  of  heat  radiated  from  a  body  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  surface  only.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  when  the  surface  is  highly  polished,  varnished, 
or  enamelled  the  radiation  is  lessened. 

Conduction.  —  When  one  end  of  a  bar  of  metal  is  held  in 
the  flame,  the  heat  travels  slowly  through  the  length  of  the 
bar,  producing  a  rise  in  temperature.  It  differs  from  radiant 
heat  in  that  its  passage  is  gradual,  and  not  affected  by 
change  of  direction  in  substance  heated.  After  a  certain 
temperature  is  reached,  the  body  begins  to  transmit  heat. 
This  method  is  called  heat  transmission  by  conduction. 
The  amount  of  heat  conducted  depends  on  the  material  and 
on  the  diameter  of  the  body.  Metals  conduct  heat  very 
easily,  though  they  vary  among  themselves. 

Convection. — When  the  minute  particles,  or  molecules, 
of  which  bodies  are  composed,  in  their  vibration,  come  in 
contact  with  hot  bodies,  they  will  themselves  become  warm. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  gases  and  liquids  are  heated.  Air  in  a 
room,  or  in  a  tightly  closed  space  like  an  oven,  is  heated  by 
coming  in  contact  with  heated  surfaces,  the  currents  in  the 
air  keeping  the  temperature  more  nearly  equal.  In  heating 
water  it  is  the  circulation,  depending  upon  the  difference  in 
temperature  of  various  parts,  which,  by  bringing  every  par- 


THE   KITCHEN  53 

ticle  in  contact  with  the  heated  surface  of  the  dish,  causes 
the  water  to  become  hot.  This  method  of  heat  transmission 
is  called  convection,  or  heating  by  contact.  Most  'cooking  is 
done  by  heat  transmitted  by  convection. 

In  any  cooking  apparatus,  then,  loss  of  heat  occurs  when 
the  material  presents  a  rough,  unpolished  surface,  has  many 
projecting  portions  (ornamentations  ?),  or  is  placed  where 
currents  of  air  may  strike  it.  For  economy  of  heat  all  cook- 
ing apparatus  must  be  highly  polished  or  enamelled,  free 
from  all  but  essential  projections,  and  so  placed  while  in 
use  that  no  drafts  may  cross  or  strike  it.  In  ovens,  non- 
conducting material,  as  asbestos,  may  be  used  between  sheets 
of  iron  or  steel,  further  to  prevent  loss  of  heat.  This  is 
done  in  the  Aladdin  oven  and  in  some  steel  ranges. 

Care  of  Range.  —  Every  morning  clean  the  ashes  from  the 
top  of  the  oven,  leaving  a  very  thin  layer  to  act  as  a  non- 
conducting medium  and  so  prevent  excessive  top  heat  in  the 
oven.  Close  all  drafts  and  shake  the  ashes  out  of  the  grate 
into  the  ash  pan.  If  there  is  an  ash  sifter  above  the  ash  pan 
sift  the  ashes  to  save  unburned  coal,  otherwise  the  ashes 
must  be  sifted  later  when  they  are  removed.  Carefully 
remove  all  ashes,  as  if  left  they  absorb  heat  and  are  waste- 
ful. Return  ash  pan  to  its  place,  save  unburned  coal  for 
use  on  fire  when  well  burning.  Brush  any  remaining  ashes 
into  ash  box  and  remove  clinkers. 

Laying  Fire.  —  Crush  paper  and  place  in  empty  fire-box, 
lightly  place  on  this  finely  split  wood  laid  like  lattice  work, 
on  this  arrange  a  second  layer  of  slightly  larger  kindling 
which  should  be  of  hard  wood.  Replace  covers  and  light 
the  paper  from  underneath.  See  that  all  dampers  are  open 
and  checks  closed.  When  the  wood  begins  to  burn,  in  about 
three  minutes,  add  two  shovelfuls  coal  so  placed  as  to  rest 
on  the  burning  wood.  When  this  ignites  add  coal  to  fill  the 
box  to  within  one  or  two  inches  of  the  covers  —  never  above 


54  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

top  of  oven,  otherwise  there  will  not  be  air  space  to  cause  a 
draft.  In  few  minutes,  five  usually,  depending  on  strength 
of  draft,  close  the  smoke  damper  so  as  to  send  the  heated 
air  around  the  oven  and  up  the  chimney.  Keep  the  lower 
draft  open  till  the  coal  begins  to  look  red  in  a  few  places, 
then  close  all  drafts.  This  fire  should  need  no  further 
attention  for  several  hours.  When  the  coals  are  all  red,  but 
not  beginning  to  look  white,  add  a  fresh  shovelful  of  coal 
so  that  the  oven  may  not  be  cooled,  but  be  kept  at  a  steady, 
even  heat.  In  an  ordinary  school  kitchen  range  in  constant 
use  for  five  hours,  two  hods  of  coal  should  last  three  days. 

In  case  the  oven  is  too  warm,  open  the  check  in  the  pipe 
that  connects  the  range  with  the  chimney  flue.  If  this  is 
not  effective,  open  the  slide  which  is  in  the  front  of  the 
range  at  edge  of  the  fire-box,  thus  letting  cold  air  enter  and 
retard  combustion  by  cooling  the  fuel. 

To  revive  a  fire,  shake  the  grate  which  cuts  the  ashes  from 
the  bottom  of  the  fire,  or  in  case  this  is  absent  remove  the 
ashes  at  the  bottom  by  using  the  poker ;  never  shake  down 
a  fire  as  this  packs  the  coals,  leaving  too  little  air  space  for 
perfect  combustion.  Heating  the  top  of  the  range  to  redness 
not  only  tends  to  warp  the  covers,  but  by  producing  heat 
sufficient  for  oxidation  actually  burns  out  the  iron. 

To  clean  the  Range.  —  After  the  fire  is  laid,  but  before  it  is 
lighted,' wash  the  top  of  the  range  with  warm  soap-suds, 
wipe  dry,  and  with  a  dauber  apply  a  mixture  of  powdered 
graphite  and  soapy  water  (stove  polishes  have  graphite  as 
basis)  to  all  parts  not  highly  polished.  Bub  to  dull  finish 
with  the  blacking  brush,  then  light  the  fire,  and  as  the  iron 
becomes  warm  polish  every  part  of  the  iron  with  a  stove 
mitten.  No  blacking  will  rub  off  on  the  cooking  utensils  if 
the  work  has  been  well  done.  During  the  day  keep  the  top 
of  the  range  clean  by  rubbing  with  soft  paper. 

If  any  of  the  parts  of  the  range  are  unfortunately  of 


THE    KITCHEN  55 


nickel,  these  should  be  polished  when  cold  by  covering  with 
a  whiting  mixture,  leaving  till  product  is  dry  and  then  pol- 
ishing with  a  soft  cloth. 

Brass  trimmings  are  best  cleaned  -with  a  mixture  of 
rottenstone  and  oil,  or  the  oil  may  be  placed  on  the  cloth 
and  then  dipped  in  the  powder.  This  polish  gives  a  soft 
yellow  color  which  is  very  lasting.  The  brass  polishes  in 
the  market  have  oil  and  rottenstone  as  a  basis,  but  usually 
contain  either  an  acid  or  an  acid  salt  which  acts  on  the 
surface  of  the  metal.  Their  use  should  be  followed  by 
polishing  with  whiting. 

Method.  —  1.  Chemistry  of  matches  including  kindling 
point  experiment. 

2.  Flame,  study  and  draw. 

3.  History  of  cooking  apparatus. 

4.  Study  of  coal  range. 

(1)  Drafts,  make  drawing  of  range  showing  flues. 

(2)  Cleaning  the  fire-box. 

(3)  Placing  the  kindling. 

(4)  Polishing  the  range. 

(5)  Lighting  the  fire. 

(6)  Keeping  the  fire  constant. 

(7)  Sifting  of  ashes  and  use  of  cinders. 

Home  Work.  —  Study  home  range  and  prepare  drawing  of 
parts  showing  air  spaces  and  drafts;  essay  on  combustion 

and  care  of  fire. 

SECTION  II 

CLEANLINESS 

Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning,  Mrs.  Richards  and  Miss  Elliott ; 
Chemistry  in  Daily  Life,  Lassar  and  Cohn ;  Organic  Chemistry  and 
Inorganic  Chemistry,  Remsen ;  Handbook  of  Household  Science, 
Youmans ;  Household  Economics,  Miss  Parloa  ;  Home  Sanitation, 
Mrs.  Richards  and  Miss  Talbot ;  Women,  Plumbers  and  Doctors, 
Plunkett ;  Dust  and  its  Dangers,  Prudden ;  Story  of  the  Bacteria, 
Prudden;  Story  of  Germ  Life,  Conn. 


56  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

CHEMISTRY  OF  CLEANING 

The  metals  in  use  in  the  kitchen  include  iron  or  cut  steel, 
brass,  copper,  tin,  zinc  and  aluminium,  nickel  and  silver. 
Under  the  head  of  composition  are  found  glass,  porcelain, 
granite,  and  enamel  ware. 

Iron.  —  If  iron  has  not  been  exposed  to  dampness  and  is 
not  rusty,  washing  with  hot  soap-suds  or  weak  sal  soda  water 
and  rubbing  dry  with  a  cloth  is  all  that  will  be  required. 
Iron  sinks  that  are  rusty  may  be  cleaned  by  rubbing  the 
inside  with  mutton  fat,  free  from  salt,  and  sprinkling  with 
powdered  quicklime.  Leave  over  night  and  in  the  morning 
wash  with  plenty  of  water  and  a  brush.  Thoroughly  rinse 
with  sal  soda  solution  and  then  with  clear  hot  water.  Rust 
may  be  removed  by  scouring  with  powdered  emery  cut  with 
benzine.  This  must  be  used  on  a  cold  surface. 

Brass  and  Copper.  —  Brass  or  copper  are  readily  acted 
upon  by  acids,  hence  they  should  not  be  used  if  any  other 
method  is  possible.  See  care  of  range  for  details  of  methods. 

Tin  is  easily  acted  upon  by  acids,  less  easily  by  alkalies. 
In  cleaning  a  discolored  tin  rub  with  baking  soda  moistened, 
or  use  a  weak  solution  of  sal  soda,  rinsing  thoroughly  in  warm 
water  and  polishing  with  a  dry  soft  towel. 

Zinc  surfaces  may  be  cleaned  with  whiting  used  as  a 
polish. 

Aluminium,  nickel,  and  silver  all  scratch  easily  and  are 
therefore  most  satisfactorily  cleaned  by  using  whiting  paste 
made  as  follows :  Sift  jeweller's  whiting  through  a  fine 
meshed  cloth  to  remove  any  hard  particles  which  might 
scratch  the  surface.  Make  the  sifted  whiting  into  a  paste 
with  soapy  water,  or  water  and  alcohol,  or  water  and  am- 
monia. Apply  the  paste  evenly  to  the  clean  surface  of  the 
metal.  Let  it  dry  and  then  polish  with  a  very  soft  cloth. 
Silver  should  receive  a  last  polishing  with  chamois. 


THE   KITCHEN  57 

Silver  may  be  cleaned  weekly  by  being  allowed  'to  stand 
in  weak  ammonia  water  for  one-half  hour,  then  rinsed  and 
polished.  Plated  ware  may  be  acted  upon  by  strong  alkali 
solutions.  Silver  should  not  be  polished  with  whiting  of  tener 
than  once  a  month. 

Glass.  —  Common  window  glass  is  easily  acted  upon  by 
alkalies  or  acids,  hence  they  should  not  be  used  in  any  but 
very  weak  solutions.  Cover  with  a  paste  made  of  whiting. 
When  it  is  dry,  polish  with  soft  paper.  There  are  various 
cleaning  preparations  or  soaps  found  in  the  market  which 
act  well  used  in  the  same  way. 

Porcelain.  —  Eemove  all  debris  and  wash  in  clear  soapy 
water  ;  rinse  in  warm  water,  never  in  boiling  ;  place  in  rack 
so  they  will  not  touch,  and,  when  drained  nearly  dry,  polish 
with  soft  cloth. 

Granite  Ware.  —  Do  not  use  a  knife  in  cleaning  either 
granite  ware  or  blue  enamel  ware,  but  remove  any  food 
which  will  not  soak  off,  by  rubbing  with  iron  dish-cloth  and 
then  scouring  with  sand  soap.  Wash  in  warm  soap-suds 
and  rinse  in  clear  hot  water.  Wipe  dry  on  soft  towel. 

Grease.  —  The  solvents  of  grease  which  may  be  used  in 
cleaning  are  kerosene,  gasolene,  benzine,  naphtha,  ether,  and 
chloroform.  Of  these  kerosene  is  used  in  cleaning  utensils 
which  may  be  oily.  A^d  one  tablespoon  to  the  warm 
water  and  wash  the  dish,  rinse  twice,  and  then  dry.  When 
used  on  finished  woodwork  to  remove  greasy  vapors,  it 
must  be  rubbed  dry  each  time.  Alkalies,  as  ammonia, 
caustic  soda,  or  caustic  potash,  form  soaps  or  emulsions 
with  fats,  the  alkali  uniting  with  the  fatty  acid  of  the 
fat,  setting  the  glycerine  free.  Sal  soda,  Na^COg,  is  an 
alkaline  salt  which  l^as^'a*  similar  though  less  marked 
effect.  It  is  used  in  "all  cases  where  the  amount  of  fat 
is  small.  Heat  aids  the  formation  of  a  soap,  hence  these 
alkaline  solutions  should  always  be  hot  when  used.  All 


OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY 


58  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

kitchen  utensils  should  be  put  to  soak  as  soon  as  used, 
so  that  when  time  comes  to  wash  them,  no  food  is  dried  on. 
Wash  in  hot  soapy  or  soda  water,  rinse,  and  wipe  dry. 
Never  leave  the  dish  stained  or  blackened,  but  wash  as 
carefully  as  the  china  is  washed.  Begin  with  the  tin 
utensils,  then  granite  ware,  and  last  iron  ware. 

Care  of  the  Sink.  Disinfectants.  —  After  the  dishes  are  all 
washed  with  fresh  soapy  water,  wash  the  sink  in  all  its 
parts,  leaving  no  corners  in  which  dirt  may  collect,  tfever 
pour  greasy  water  down  the  sink  drain,  but  first  change  it 
into  a  soap  or  dissolve  it.  All  dish  water  must  be  poured 
through  a  fine  sieve  to  remove  any  coarse  particles. 

Three  times  a  week  the  sink  drain  should  be  flushed  with  a 
boiling  sal  soda  solution,  one  pint  sal  soda  dissolved  in  three 
gallons  water.  Use  at  least  two  quarts,  following  a  flushing 
with  very  hot  water,  so  that  any  grease  which  may  have 
collected  will  be  in  a  liquid  condition,  and  so  will  be 
changed  to  a  soap  or  emulsion  more  quickly. 

Lint  from  dish-cloths  which  are  very  much  worn  often 
clog  a  sink  trap,  and  should  not  be  used  for  that  reason. 
In  the  lower  portion  of  every  trap  there  should  be  an 
opening  closed  by  a  screw  cap,  so  that  if  drain  through 
careless  use  becomes  clogged,  a  pail  may  be  placed  under 
the  trap,  the  cap  removed,  and  the  trap  thoroughly  washed 
and  disinfected.  The  terms  "disinfectant,"  "antiseptic," 
and  "deodorant"  are  used  so  loosely  that  it  may  not  be 
out  of  place  to  define  them. 

"An  antiseptic  arrests  putrefaction  or  fermentation,  but 
does  not  kill  the  micro-organism,  whilst  a  deodorant  is  used 
to  destroy  bad  odors  from  cesspools,  stables,  and  discharges, 
etc.  ...  By  term  '  disinfection '  is  meant  the  absolute 
destruction  of  infectious  material." 


THE   KITCHEN 


59 


Chemical. 

Antiseptic 
Proportion. 

Disinfectant. 

Deodorant. 

Bichloride  mercury    .     . 

1    40,000 

1  :  500,  1  :  1000 



Permanganate  of  potash, 

1      3,000 

Saturated  solution 

1-3000 

Boric  acid 

1         200 

Carbolic  acid    .... 

1         500 

1:20 

1-    50 

Sulphate  copper    .     .     . 

1         400 

— 

1-  400 

Sulphate  iron    .... 

1         200 

— 

1-  400 

f    1  Ib.  to 

Chloride  of  lime    .     .     . 

— 

25  %  chlorine 

1  8  qts.  H2O 

Chloride  of  zinc    .     .     . 

— 

1:5 

1-    20 

Milk  of  lime     .... 

Used  as  whitewash 

i 

Boiling  water  is  an  antiseptic  if  temperature  is  main- 
tained ten  minutes. 

Boiling  hot  soap-suds  is  another  excellent  antiseptic. 

To  be  of  value,  a  disinfectant  must  touch  all  parts  of  the 
object  thought  to  be  infected,  so  that  no  germ  life  may 
"escape. 

All  woodwork  and  walls  where  dust  may  collect  and 
germs  develop  should  be  washed  in  an  antiseptic  solution 
and  then  in  clear  water  and  wiped  dry. 

Sunshine  is  detrimental  to  growth  of  germ  life,  and  hence 
is  a  fair  antiseptic,  but  for  hygienic  cleanliness  its  work 
should  be  supplemented  by  use  of  antiseptic  washes.  All 
antiseptic  or  disinfectant  solutions  should  be  carefully  la- 
belled poison  and  placed  in  a  locked  closet  to  prevent  acci- 
dental poisoning, 

Method.  —  Outline. 

Materials.  — Mouldy  food,  test-tubes,  flour,  sugar,  alkalies, 
beef  fat  or  olive  oil,  whiting,  rotten  stone,  emery,  benzine, 
kerosene. 


60  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

A.  MEANING  OF  CLEANLINESS. 

Includes :  — 

I.  Removing  dust. 

II.  Preventing  growth  of  germ  life. 

III.  Removing  stains. 

B.  How  ACCOMPLISHED. 

(a)  Floating  products  in  air  allowed  to  settle  and 
then  removed  by  wiping  surface  with  cloth 
dampened  in  water,  soapy  water,  or  mercuric 
chloride,  water  .solution  1 :  40,000. 
Wash  cloth,  using  hot  soap-suds,  and  rinse  in 
boiling  water.  Dry  in  sunshine. 

I.  PREVENT  ENTRANCE  OF  DUST. 

Illustrate  action  of  invisible  life  by  showing  mouldy 
bread  or  mouldy  cheese. 

(a)  To  one  tablespoon  flour  and  one  teaspoon  sugar 
add  three  tablespoons  boiling  water  and  cover 
the  dish  with  a  tightly  fitting  cover  or  one 
that  projects  over  the  edges. 

(6)   In  another  dish  left  open  place  the  same  mixture. 

Leave  both  for  several  hours  and  examine. 
Explain  the  cause.     Apply  explanation  to  pro- 
duction of  foul  odors. 

II.  PREVENTING  GROWTH  OF  GERM  LIFE. 

EXPERIMENT  1.    Action  of  Boiling  Temperature. 
Prepare   a   weak  cane   sugar   solution,   divide  it, 
placing  1£  teaspoonfuls  in  each  of  three  test-tubes, 
(a)   Boil  solution  and  seal  with  cotton  while  hot. 
(6)   Boil  solution  and  leave  exposed  to  air. 
(c)    Seal  solution  3  without  first  boiling. 

Leave  the  test-tubes  (a)  and  (b)  in  dark  place.    . 
Expose  test-tube  (c)  to  the  direct  sunshine. 
Examine   for  presence   of   moulds   or  bacterial 
life. 


THE   KITCHEN  61 

EXPERIMENT   2.    Dampen   flour   and   leave   in   dark 
place  for  several  days. 

Let  pupils  draw  conclusions  as  to  the  factors 
which  aid  growth  of  moulds  and  bacteria  and  how 
these  conditions  may  be  avoided. 
III.   REMOVING  STAINS. 
(a)   Grease  stains. 

{Kerosene, 
Gasolene, 
Benzine, 
Naphtha, 
Chloroform. 
2.   Soaps  or  emulsions. 

Explain  nature  of  fats  or  oils  and  how 
alkalies  may  break  up  the  combina- 
tion, forming  a  new  compound  called 
a  soap. 

EXPERIMENT  3.  Pour  l-i-  teaspoonf  uls  strong  sodium 
hydroxid  solution  (NaOH)  into  an  evaporating 
dish  or  a  granite  ware  dish  and  add  3  c.c.  warm 
tallow,  fat,  or  olive  oil.  Boil  the  mixture,  stirring 
till  it  becomes  clear.  Add  tiny  amount  of  salt  (soap 
is  not  soluble  in  salt  water).  Soap  should  collect 
on  top  of  the  liquid.  Use  it  in  making  soap-suds. 
EXPERIMENT  4.  Prepare  a  greasy  water ;  add  solution 
of  sal  soda  (Na2C03),  or  use  ammonia  or  potassium 
carbonate  to  form  an  emulsion.  [Wood  ashes  con- 
tain either  potassium  or  sodium  salts,  depending 
upon  the  location  of  the  vegetable  growth.  Inland 
woods  are  rich  in  potassium  salts.  Hence  the  use 
of  wood  ashes  in  removing  grease  stains.] 
(6)  Stains  on  metals. 

(1)   Why  metals  become  discolored. 

Copper  or  brass  oxidized  by  union  with 
oxygen  of  air. 


62  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Iron  rust  (oxid  produced  by  oxygen  in 
presence  of  moisture). 

Silver  —  sulphid  formed  by  action  of 
sulphur  in  food  or  in  air  from  burn- 
ing gas. 

Aluminium  tarnished  by  acids  in  foods. 

(2)  Objection  to  use  of  acids. 

(3)  Polishing  reagents. 

Whiting  or  silver  polish. 

EXPERIMENT  5.  Sift  one  pound  jewellers'  whiting 
through  fine-meshed  cloth  to  remove  the  coarse 
particles.  Make  the  powder  into  a  paste,  using 
soap  solution  or  ammonia  in  water.  Use  this  on 
silver,  nickel,  aluminium,  and  zinc. 
Rottenstone  and  sweet  oil  to  be  used  on  copper  or 

brass. 

Benzine  and  powdered  emery  to  be  used  on  cut  steel. 
IV.   CARE  OF  SINK. 

Materials  used  in  body  of  sink. 
Plumbing  —  Form  of  trap  and  its  value. 
Use  of  strainer. 
Disinfection  of  trap. 

Flushing  with  boiling  water, 

or  soapy  water  at  boiling  temperature, 
or  hot  sal  soda  solution, 
or  a  disinfectant. 
Practice  work  for  pupils. 

Clean  all  woodwork,  windows,  metal,  and  dishes 

in  the  kitchen. 

Disinfect  the  sink  drain  and  dish-cloth. 
To  TEACHER.  —  Prepare  Experiments  2,  3,  and  4  in  class, 
but  have  duplicates  prepared  several  days  before,  so 
that  results  may  be  shown  and  conclusions  drawn. 
Encourage  pupils  to  examine  and  report  orally  and  with 


THE   KITCHEN  63 

drawings    on    kinds   of   traps   found   in   their   own 

homes. 

Tell  them  of  the  work  of  Pasteur. 
Have  the  results  of  work  embodied  in  written  exercise 

on  cleanliness. 


•  CHAPTER  III 

STARCHY  FOODS,  AND  HOW  TO  COOK  THEM 

Starch.  —  All  plants  contain  more  or  less  of  a  class  of 
compounds  called  carbohydrates.  These  contain  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  The  parts  of  carbon  are  usually  six, 
or  a  multiple  of  six,  and  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  in  the 
ratio  to  form  water ;  that  is  two  parts  of  hydrogen  to  one  of 
oxygen.  A  few  carbohydrates  are  of  animal  origin,  but  the 
larger  number  form  the  bulk  of  the  solids  of  plants. 

One  member  of  the  group  cellulose  has  been  mentioned 
in  discussing  woods  as  fuel.  As  it  forms  the  main  part 
of  the  cell  wall  of  all  higher  plants,  and  as  a  rule  of  the 
lower  plants,  which  include  fungi  and  bacteria,  it  is  a  factor 
to  be  considered  in  all  study  of  vegetable  foode.  It  is 
insoluble  in  water  though  softened  by  long  application  of 
boiling  temperature. 

The  digestive  juices  of  man  have  little  or  no  action  on  cellu- 
lose. In  presence  of  water  and  under  the  influence  of 
bacteria  it  decomposes,  giving  rise  to  marsh  gas.  This 
bacterial  decomposition  may  take  place  in  the  intestine.  It 
is  said  to  increase  the  peristaltic  action  of  the  intestine  and 
by  hastening  the  elimination  of  food  cause  a  loss  of  nitrogen. 
This  was  shown  by  experimental  feeding  with  whole-wheat 
bread.  The  results  were  that  less  of  the  nitrogenous 
products  were  -absorbed  on  this  diet  than  were  during  use 
of  white  bread. 

Starch.  — Contained  within  the  cellulose  walls  of  plants  are 
tiny  granules  of  a  highly  complex  carbohydrate,  starch.  The 

64 


STAECHY  FOODS  65 

characteristic  appearance  of  starch  granules  may  be  shown 
by  placing  a  very  thin  slice  of  potato  under  a  low-power 
microscope.  These  granules  vary  in  size  even  from  the 
same  plant,  but  they  may  be  recognized  by  peculiar  mark- 
ings upon  the  surface  as  well  as  by  shape.  The  starch 
seems  to  be  deposited  in  layers  around  one  or  more  nuclei, 
—  hence  concentric  rings  may  be  observed.  When  subjected 
to  water  and  low  heat,  these  layers  absorb  the  water,  and 
thus  the  markings  disappear.  If  the  boiling  temperature 
be  used,  the  starch  granule  loses  its  regular  form,  becoming 
a  paste  which  is  slightly  sweet  and  very  gummy.  Cold 
water  does  not  form  a  solution  with  starch. 

When  starch  is  heated  with  dilute  acids,  it  forms  a  clear 
solution.  Water  seems  to  have  united  with  it.  The  last 
product  of  this  reaction  is  grape  sugar.  A  ferment  in  the 
saliva  changes  starch  into  a  sugar.  A  similar  change  takes 
place  in  the  starch  of  seeds  on  germination.  This  may  be 
shown  by  chewing  in  succession  barley  and  the  germinated 
barley  known  as  malt.  The  first  will  be  tasteless,  whereas 
the  germinated  barley  is  sweet  with  sugar. 

Dextrin. — Dry  starch  may  be  heated  and  thus  changed 
into  a  product  which  is  yellowish  in  color  and  soluble  in 
water ;  •  this  is  called  dextrin.  It  is  the  basis  of  British 
gum  and  of  library  paste.  Long-continued  heat  causes  the 
dextrin  to  become  brown  and  bitter.  This  product  is  called 
caramel. 

Beyond  this  stage  the  product  is  soon  transformed 
into  carbon.  Water  is  driven  out,  thus  leaving  carbon 
free. 

Iodine  Reaction. — Starch  paste  gives  a  blue  color  with 
iodine  solution,  so  that  its  presence  even  in  minute 
quantities  may  be  detected.  This  is  used  in  connection 
with  the  microscope  to  detect  adulteration  of  spices  with 
foreign  starches.  The  test  may  be  easily  applied  to  so- 


66  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

called  baby  foods,  where  starch  should  not  be  present,  as 
the  very  young  baby  cannot  digest  starchy  foods. 

The  simplest  way  to  determine  the  amount  of  starch  in  a 
food  is  to  reduce  it  to  powder  in  a  mortar,  and  mix  with 
water  to  form  a  medium  dough.  Tie  the  dough  in  a  loosely 
woven  cloth,  so  that  no  part  except  starch  may  escape. 
Place  the  bag  of  'dough  in  a  bowl  of  cool  water  and  knead 
with  the  fingers  till  no  more  starch  can  be  washed  from  it. 
This  is  shown  when  the  water  runs  clear,  not  milky,  from 
the  bag.  Let  the  starchy  water  stand  till  all  starch  has 
settled,  drain  or  siphon  off  the  water.  Dry  the  starch  in 
the  sun  and  weigh.  If  the  weight  of  food  is  known,  the 
ratio  will  show  roughly  the  amount  of  starch  in  the  food. 
The  residue  in  the  bag  will  be  cellulose  and  insoluble 
proteins.  If  it  be  flour  which  is  examined,  the  product  is 
largely  gluten,  and  may  be  examined  at  this  time. 

Digestion  of  Starch.  —  During  the  mastication  of  food  any 
starches  are  mingled  with  the  saliva,  which,  if  its  re- 
action is  alkaline,  begins  the  transformation  of  starch  into 
a  sugar.  The  partially  transformed  starch  on  reaching  the 
stomach  meets  an  acid  secretion  which  in  the  course  of  half 
an  hour  usually  neutralizes  the  alkaline  saliva.  The 
stomach  ferments  have  no  action  upon  -starch,  hence  it 
passes  without  further  change  into  the  small  intestine. 
Here  the  change  into  soluble  sugars  is  completed  by  other 
ferments  secreted  by  the  pancreas  and  by  the  intestine. 

Use  of  Starch.  —  Starch,  when  digested,  is  utilized  in  the 
body  in  furnishing  energy  expended  as  body  heat,  as  work, 
or  stored  as  fat.  It  never  builds  any  other  tissue  in  the 
body,  hence  must  always  be  used  with  muscle-producing 
foods,  the  proteins. 

Method.  —  Starch. 

Composition  and  Form.  —  Use  a  microscope  to  show 
individual  granules  as  well  as  position  in  cell.  (Cut  a 


STAKCHY   FOODS  67 

very  thin  slice  of  raw  potato  to  illustrate  cells  containing 
starch.) 

EXPERIMENT  1.  Composition.  —  Place  dry  starch  in  test- 
tube  and  apply  heat  from  Bunsen  burner.  Note  the  change 
in  color,  the  odor,  the  moisture  on  sides  of  tube,  and  near 
end  of  experiment  apply  lighted  match  to  mouth  of  test- 
tube  to  ignite  the  combustible  gases  driven  off.  Break  tube 
and  examine  its  contents. 

If  nitrogen  were  present,  the  odor  would  have  been  like 
burnt  feathers. 

EXPERIMENT  2.  Action  of  Cold  Water  on  Starch.  —  To  J  tea- 
spoon corn  starch  add  2-J-  teaspoonfuls  cold  water.  Mix  thor- 
oughly. Allow  it  to  stand  till  starch  settles.  When  water 
is  clear,  drain  it  off  and  dry  the  starch.  Draw  conclusions. 

EXPERIMENT  3.  Action  of  Boiling  Water  on  Starch.  —  To 
2|-  teaspoonfuls  boiling  water  in  test-tube  add  \  teaspoon 
dry  starch,  without  stirring.  Examine  the  lumps  and  ex- 
plain the  condition. 

EXPERIMENT  4.  Action  of  Heat  on  Cold  Water  Mixture.  — 
To  \  teaspoon  corn  starch  add  2-1-  teasponfuls  cold  water. 
Mix  thoroughly,  and  continue  to  stir  while  heat  is  applied. 
Use  a  thermometer  to  note  the  temperature  when  mixture 
becomes  thick,  when  clear.  What  has  become  of  starch 
granules.  Dilute  with  water.  Draw  conclusions. 

EXPERIMENT  5.  Action  of  Cold  Water  on  Vegetables  soaked 
in  them.  —  Wash  and  pare  a  potato,  slice  it,  and  let  slices  soak 
in  cold  water  for  one-half  hour.  Examine  the  water.  Drain 
and  apply  heat  to  the  white  sediment  in  dish.  It  thickens. 
Why? 

EXPERIMENT  6.  Put  rice  in  boiling  water.  Note  the 
milky  color  of  fluid.  Let  this  product  stand  and  examine 
sediment.  Apply  heat  as  in  Experiment  5.  Are  the  results 
similar  ?  (Dry  the  rice  for  future  work.) 

Should  starchy  vegetables  be  soaked  in   cold  water? 


68  HANDBOOK    OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Boiling  Vegetables. 

EXPERIMENT  7.  Wash  and  pare  thinly  two  crisp  potatoes. 
Place  them  in  boiling  salted  water.  (1  tablespoon  salt  to 
1  quart  water.)  Continue  to  boil  the  water  till  the  potatoes 
are  soft.  Kemove  one  from  the  water  and  keep  in  warm 
place,  uncovered.  Cook  the  second  potato  longer  or  till 
gummy.  Compare  the  dry,  mealy  condition  of  the  first 
with  the  gummy,  slightly  sweet  condition  of  the  second. 

Give  list  of  Starchy  Foods. 

EXPERIMENT  8.  Home  Work  for  Pupil.  —  Pare  a  large 
potato,  and  grate  it  into  a  bowl  of  cold  water.  Drain  off 
milky  water  and  add  fresh.  Save  the  milky  water.  Eepeat 
this  process  till  starch  is  all  washed  from  the  fibre. 

Let  the  water  stand.  Drain  and  dry  the  starch.  Dry 
the  fibre  or  cellulose  left  after  washing  out  the  starch. 
Bring  the  results  to  the  class. 

If  the  period  for  work  will  not  permit  every  experiment, 
omit  those  on  rice.  If  a  microscope  is  not  available,  place 
drawings  on  board,  and  have  pupils  hold  thin  slices  of 
potato  to  the  light  to  see  structure. 

The  boiled  potato  may  be  put  through  vegetable  press, 
thus  making  riced  potatoes.  The  potatoes  used  in  Experi- 
ment 5  may  be  used  in  preparing  escalloped  potatoes. 

Caution! — Avoid  the  use  of  terms  like  "starch  cell," 
or  "bursting  of  wall  of  starch  grain/7  or  "starch  is  made 
soluble,"  or  "dissolves,"  because  they  do  not  express  the 
truth,  though  commonly  used. 

Recipes  for  Pupils 

Riced  Potatoes. —  Select  medium  sized  potatoes,  pare,  and 
cut  into  uniform  shape,  and  cover  with  cold  water  till  ready 
for  use.  Never  soak  in  cold  water,  as  there  will  be  a  loss  of 
mineral  salts  and  starch.  As  soon  as  possible  immerse  in 


STARCHY  FOODS  69 

boiling  salted  water  —  two  quarts  water,  one  tablespoonf ul 
salt.  Continue  to  boil  the  water  till  potatoes  are  tender; 
that  is,  easily  pierced  by  a  fork.  Drain  and  leave  uncovered 
while  preparing  the  dish  in  which  the  potato  is  to  be  served. 
When  the  dish  has  been  dipped  in  hot  water  and  dried,  force 
the  hot  potato  through  ax  vegetable  press,  or  rub  through  a 
colander  or  coarse  sieve,  using  a  wooden  spoon,  thus  piling 
the  product  lightly  upon  the  dish.  Never  touch  the  prod- 
uct after  having  passed  it  through  the  press. 

Escalloped  Potatoes.  —  Scrub,  pare,  and  cut  five  small  pota- 
toes in  one-eighth  inch  slices.  Soak  one-half  hour  in  hot 
water  to  remove  some  of  the  acrid  flavor.  Drain  and  put 
into  a  deep  pudding  dish  in  layers,  alternating  with  salt, 
pepper,  butter,  and  a  thin  layer  of  sifted  flour.  Add  warm 
rnilk  so  that  it  is  visible  in  top  layer.  Bake  in  slow  oven 
one  and  a  half  hours,  or  till  potatoes  are  soft.  Serve  in  the 
dish  in  which  it  is  cooked. 

TRANSFORMATION  OF  STARCH  INTO  SOLUBLE  COMPOUNDS 

History  of  Sauces.  — Various  liquid  or  semi-liquid  products, 
which  by  adding  flavor,  moisture,  or  by  increasing  attrac- 
tiveness of  solid  foods  render  them  more  palatable,  and 
therefore  more  digestible,  are  known  as  sauces.  The  early 
Komans  used  a  sauce  which  they  termed  jus,  but  it  may 
have  been  the  meat  juice,  or  gravy,  rather  than  a  product  re- 
sembling our  modern  sauces.  It  is  surmised  that  our  modern 
sauce  is  an  evolution  of  a  solution  used  by  the  Komans  in 
preserving  or  maturing  meats.  Pliny  writes  of  salsugo  or 
salsilago,  a  briny  pickle  in  which  meat  was  kept.  Thudi- 
chum  thinks  that  this  standard  jus  became  a  salsum  or  salsa, 
which  the  French  changed  into  saulza,  and  finally  into  sauce. 

Beginning  as  meat  juice  or  meat  pickle,  these  additions 
became  more  and  more  complicated,  but  retained  as  a  basis 


70  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

the  juice  or  juice  diluted  with  hot  water  —  bouillon,  or  meat 
broth.  Each  nationality  has  its  favorite  sauces,  but  it  is  to 
France  that  we  owe  the  greatest  debt,  as  they  held  fast 
to  the  old  traditions,  and  so  improved  and  increased  the 
number  of  sauces  that  long  before  America  was  discovered 
the  saucier s  of  Paris  had  formed  a  corporation.  Before  the 
reign  of  Louis  XI.  (1423-1483)  they  made  sauces  which  the 
people  used  to  flavor  their  ragouts.  By  a  patent  of  Louis 
XII.  this  making  of  sauces  was  raised  in  1514  to  the  rank 
of  a  distinct  trade  or  profession.  The  era  of  fine  cookery 
in  France  began  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  seven- 
teenth century,  when  the  nobles  vied  with  each  other  in 
compounding  delicate  dishes.  From  this  time  on,  even  into 
and  beyond  the  French  Revolution,  the  art  of  cookery 
flourished  to  such  an  extent  that  writers  and  artists  and 
statesmen  were  more  proud  of  being  the  inventor  of  a  new 
sauce  or  a  new  dish  than  of  their  professional  skill  in  other 
lines  —  Alexander  Dumas  is  a  famous  example ;  while  many 
of  our  well-known  sauces  still  retain  the  name  of  the  states- 
man or  noble  who  created  them  —  for  example,  sauce  a  la 
Bechamel.  After  the  Revolution,  the  cooks  of  the  nobles, 
being  obliged  to  provide  for  themselves,  established  restau- 
rants where  the  most  delicate  and  elaborate  products  of  their 
skill  were  at  the  service  of  the  one  who  could  pay  the  price. 
The  world  has  adopted  the  restaurant  system,  and  French 
cookery  is  the  standard  of  excellence.  The  names  of  these 
famous  cooks  are  preserved  in  literature  as  well  as  in  our  re- 
cipes. Sauce  Robert  is  said  to  be  named  from  its  inventor, 
a  cook,  and  to  have  given  the  title  to  a  satirical  pamphlet 
by  the  French  historian  Thiers.  This  pamphlet,  like  the 
sauce,  was  not  only  acid,  but  very  biting,  and  got  its  author 
into  difficulty. 

The  modern  sauce  is  composed  of  meat  essences,  vegetable 
flavors,  spices  and   condiments,  held  together  by  a  bind- 


STARCHY  FOODS  71 

ing  material  made  by  heating  flour  to  a  very  high  tempera- 
ture so  as  to  change  it  into  a  gluelike  product.  This  change 
is  best  secured  by  heating  the  dry  flour  and  fat  together  till 
they  become  thin,  and  in  some  cases  brown,  when  the  liquid 
is  slowly  added,  and  all  cooked  till  the  product  is  smooth 
and  velvety.  It  may  then  be  strained  and  kept  in  a  cool 
place  till  needed,  or  kept  hot  in  a  double  boiler  till  ready 
for  use.  Most  sauces  have  as  a  foundation  brown  sauce  or 
Koux,  or  white  sauce  or  veloute,  both  easily  made  if  ma- 
terials are  perfect  and  care  is  used  in  compounding. 

Materials. — Flour,  butter,  potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  pars- 
nips, salsify,  and  asparagus. 

Outline.  —  I.   Review  of  previous  lesson. 

Cook  in  boiling  salted  water  the  following  vegetables : 
potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  salsify,  and  asparagus. 

II.  Action  of  dry  heat  on  starch. 

EXPERIMENT  9.  Place  one  tablespoon  dry  starch  or  flour 
on  a  piece  of  paper  (cellulose)  and  leave  them  in  a  hot  oven 
(300°  F.)  for  fifteen  minutes  or  such  a  length  of  time  as  is 
necessary  to  change  the  color  of  starch  to  a  light  yellow. 
Note  taste  and  odor.  To  one-third  the  product  add  three 
teaspoons  water  and  boil.  Filter  to  remove  unchanged 
starch.  The  solution  contains  dextrin  used  as  a  glue.  Add 
twice  its  bulk  of  alcohol,  and  dextrin  is  precipitated ;  filter 
and  dry.  Test  starch  paste  with  tincture  of  iodine.  Test 
dextrin  with  tincture  of  iodine. 

III.  Starch  or  flour  cooked  in  hot  butter  or  other  fat,  as 
beef  or  olive  oil. 

EXPERIMENT  10.  To  one  teaspoon  very  hot  but  not  browned 
butter  add  two  teaspoons  flour;  continue  to  heat  and  stir 
till  the  flour  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  butter,  and  the 
mixture  has  become  thin  but  not  brown.  (Remove  a  drop 
to  a  white  piece  of  paper  and  save  to  test  with  iodine.) 
Then  slowly  add  one  tablespoon  milk  or  stock,  stirring  over 


72  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

the  fire  till  the  mixture  is  thick  and  smooth,  then  add  a 
second  tablespoon  liquid;  continue  till  four  and  one-half 
tablespoons ,  liquid  have  been  added.  Heat  the  product  to 
boiling  point  and  season  with  one-sixteenth  teaspoon  salt 
and  a  few  grains  white  pepper. 

The  high  temperature  conveyed  by  the  fat  quickly  changes 
the  flour  into  dextrin,  which,  being  soluble,  may  be  diluted 
with  liquid  and  yet  remain  smooth  and  paste-like. 

If  the  flour  or  the  fat  be  browned  in  this  process,  the 
product  contains  not  only  dextrin,  but  a  product  of  dextrin, 
dextrin-caramel,  which  gives  the  brown  color  and  slightly 
bitter  taste  to  brown  sauces. 

IV.  What  other  method  of  cooking  gives  the  brown 
exterior  to  starchy  foods  ? 

Explain  the  use  and  value  of  sauces  and  give  something 
of  their  history. 

Have  each  pupil  prepare  white  sauce,  serving  it  with  one 
vegetable.  Other  vegetables  if  in  season  may  be  substituted 
for  any  in  the  list,  or  the  number  may  be  restricted  to  three. 

Eoux,  or  Brown  Sauce.  —  1  cup  hot  soup  stock,  -J  teaspoon 
salt,  \  saltspoon  pepper,  1  teaspoon  lemon  juice,  1  teaspoon 
chopped  onion,  1  tablespoon  butter,  1  tablespoon  flour. 

The  stock  may  be  made  from  bones  from  roasts  or  steak 
with  addition  of  fresh  meat  from  shin.  Cut  and  break  all 
and  cover  with  cold  water.  Keep  at  simmering  point  three 
hours.  Strain  and  season  with  salt  and  keep  in  ice  chest  in 
closed  dish. 

Melt  the  butter  and  add  the  onion.  Fry  till  a*  light 
brown,  add  the  flour,  and  cook  till  the  mixture  slightly 
thins,  then  add  the  hot  stock  two  tablespoons  at  a  time, 
stirring  each  time  till  smooth,  season  with  lemon,  pepper 
and  salt,  and  strain.  This  is  foundation  for  many  sauces. 


STARCHY  FOODS  73 

WHITE    SAUCE    (i  RECIPE) 

.  To  one  teaspoon  very  hot  but  not  browned  butter  add 
two  level  teaspoons  cornstarch,  or  two  and  one-half  level 
teaspoons  flour;  stir  over  the  heat  till  the  products  are 
thoroughly  mixed  and  have  become  slightly  thinner.  Then 
slowly  add  one  tablespoon  warm,  milk,  stirring  it  over  the 
fire  till  mixture  is  thick  and  smooth,  then  add  a  second 
tablespoon  milk,  continue  till  four  and  one-half  tablespoons 
milk  have  been  added.  Heat  product  to  the  boiling  point 
and  remove  from  the  fire.  Season  with  one-sixteenth  tea- 
spoonful  salt  and  a  few  grains  of  pepper. 

MACARONI 

Facts.  —  Macaroni,  as  we  know  it,  seems  to  be  original  to 
southern  Italy  though  a  similar  paste  is  used  in  Persia, 
India,  and  China,  not  tubular,  however. 

The  name  "  macaroni "  seems  to  have  come  from  a  Greek 
word  meaning  happiness,  and  hence  some  authorities  imply 
that  it  is  an  invention  of  the  early  Greek  settlers  in  Sicily 
and  Calabria.  Macaroni  may  have  been  introduced  into 
France  at  the  time  of  the  wedding  of  Catherine  de}  Medici 
with  Henry  II.  in  sixteenth  century. 

Macaroni  is  made  of  a  flour  prepared  from  a  wheat  grain 
rich  in  gluten.  This  wheat  flour  is  made  into  a  dough  with 
boiling  water.  The  dough  is  worked  under  heavy  revolving 
stones  till  of  the  right  consistency.  Upon  this  process 
depends  much  of  the  quality  of  the  product.  This  dough  is 
then  forced  by  a  powerful  plugger  through  a  perforated  steel 
or  iron  cylinder.  As  this  cylinder  is  suspended  over  a  fire, 
the  dough  is  partially  baked  as  it  is  forced  into  shape.  It 
is  afterwards  hung  over  rods  or  laid  on  cloth-covered  frames 
to  dry.  In  Italy,  especially  in  Naples,  during  this  drying 
it  is  exposed  to  dust  and  odors  of  every 


} 


74  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

If  the  cylinders  are  large,  the  product  is  macaroni ;  if 
finer,  it  is  spaghetti ;  if  very  fine,  vermicelli.  When  the 
paste  is  cut  into  fancy  shapes,  it  is  called  pasta  d?  Italia. 

French  macaroni  is  made  from  a  flour  enriched  with 
gluten  and  is  considered  as  good  or  even  better  than  Italian 
macaroni,  but  that  made  in  the  United  States  is  poor  in 
gluten,  starchy,  and  breaks  easily  when  cooking,  presenting 
an  unattractive  appearance. 

Good  macaroni  is  rough,  elastic,  and  hard.  In  color  it  is 
yellowish  gray,  never  starchy. 

When  cooked  in  boiling  salted  water,  it  increases  at  least 
twice  in  bulk  and  does  not  split. 

Food  Value.  —  Macaroni  is  comparatively  rich  in  nitroge- 
nous food  and  rich  in  heat-producers,  hence  is  a  valuable 
and  nutritious  food.  It  should  be  served  as  a  vegetable  or' 
with  cheese  as  the  principal  muscle-producing  food  at  the 
meal,  not  as  an  accompaniment  to  a  meat  dish. 

Alone,  macaroni  does  not  contain  the  amount  of  muscle 
food  necessary  for  the  laboring-man,  hence  its  use  with 
eggs,  meat,  or  cheese  is  essential. 

Method.  —  Material.  Samples  of  the  various  forms  in 
which  macaroni  or  Italian  paste  is  found  in  our  markets, 
cheese,  tomato  (can),  butter,  and  flour.  Pictures  showing 
native  manufacture. 

Outline :  —  (1)  History.  (3)  Manufacture. 

(2)  Composition.         (4)  Food  Value. 

EXPERIMENT  11.  Composition  of  Flour.  —  Mix  two  table- 
spoons flour  with  two  teaspoons  water  to  form  a  stiff  dough. 
Knead  till  smooth.  Securely  tie  in  a  square  of  coarse 
muslin  and  knead  in  a  bowl  containing  one  quart  luke- 
warm water,  till  the  white  material  ceases  to  pass  out. 
Save  the  water.  When  white  material  has  settled,  drain  off 
the  clear  water,  save  the  residue,  and  test  for  starch. 


STARCHY  FOODS  75 

Examine  the  product.  Note  its  color  and  elasticity.  It 
is  a  compound  in  flour  which  by  swelling  retains  the  gases 
in  bread-making,  or  causes  the  increase  in  bulk  in  macaroni 
during  cooking.  Form  part  of  it  into  a  smooth  ball  and 
cook  it  in  boiling  water. 

Cooking  Macaroni.  —  Cook  in  boiling  salted  water  twenty 
minutes.  Drain  and  pour  over  cold  water  to  remove  any 
starch  paste  on  the  outer  part,  which  if  left  would  cause 
the  pieces  of  macaroni  to  adhere  to  each  other. 

Review  of  previous  lesson.  Prepare  white  sauce.  Pre- 
pare tomato  sauce. 

Serve  macaroni  with  (a)  white  sauce,  as 

(6)  Baked  macaroni  with  cheese. 

(c)  With  tomato  sauce. 

While  the  macaroni  is  cooking,  each  pupil  may  prepare  a 
white  or  a  tomato  sauce  as  review  and  serve  with  the  cooked 
macaroni  as  directed.  Essay  on  macaroni  may  constitute 
the  home  work. 

Recipe  for  Pupils 

Tomato  Sauce.  —  1  cup  hot  stewed  and  strained  tomato, 
\  teaspoon  salt,  \  saltspoon  paprika  or  white  pepper,  1  tea- 
spoon chopped  onion,  1  tablespoon  butter,  1  tablespoon  flour. 

Prepare  the  same  as  for  Roux  or  brown  sauce. 

Serve  with  macaroni. 

For  white  sauce,  see  p.  73. 

ADDITIONAL  WORK  IN  SAUCES 

(a)  Koux  or  brown  butter  sauce  is  the  basis  of  brown 
sauce  piquante,  sauce  Robert,  and  brown  mushroom  sauce. 
(&)  "White  Roux"  —  a  misnomer;  white  sauce,  see  p.  39. 
Drawn  butter  sauce,  foundation  of  — 

Caper,  Shrimp,  Sauce  Piquante, 

Egg,  Oyster,  Bechamel, 

Lemon,  Parsley,  Curry  sauce. 


76  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

Practice.  —  Steamed  rice  with  curry  sauce ;  cauliflower 
with  white  sauce ;  cabbage  au  gratin,  white  sauce,  and 
grated  cheese. 

Facts  to  be  noted :  — 

^1)  Sauces  must  be  smooth  and  free  from  oil. 

(2)  Cabbage  and  cauliflower  are  cooked  when  cellulose  is 
tender,  usually  in  twenty  minutes.      They  become  tough 
and  strong  flavored  if  cooked  longer. 

(3)  If  dried  bread  be  tied  loosely  in  cheese  cloth  and 
placed  on  top  of  vegetables,  as  cauliflower,  cabbage,  or  onion, 
it  will  in  a  measure   absorb   the   odors   which   otherwise 
escape  into  the  room. 

Recipe  for  Pupils 

\. 

Cabbage  au  Gratin.  —  Select  a  small  heavy  cabbage. 
Remove  the  outside  discolored  leaves  and  cut  the  remainder 
into  quarters.  Soak  it  in  salted  water  half  an  hour. 
Drain,  place  in  boiling  salted  water,  and  cook  rapidly 
twenty  minutes.  Placing  stale  bread  loosely  tied  in  cheese 
cloth  on  top  of  cabbage  under  a  cover  will  in  r,  measure 
absorb  the  odor,  so  that  it  will  not  be  objectionable  in  the 
room. 

At  the  end  of  twenty  minutes  the  cabbage  should  be 
tender,  but  still  greenish  yellow,  never  brownish  yellow. 
While  the  cabbage  is  cooking,  prepare  a  white  sauce  and 
grate  two  ounces  of  cheese.  Drain  the  water  from  the 
cooked  cabbage,  place  quickly  in  covered  vegetable  dish, 
pour  over  it  the  hot  white  sauce,  sprinkle  over  the  grated 
cheese,  replace  the  cover,  and  serve.  The  heat  from  the 
cabbage  and  the  sauce  partially  melts  the  cheese. 

KICE 

Facts.  —  Bice  as  it  is  found  in  nature  is  a  kernel  covered 
with  two  husks,  a  coarse  outer  one,  which  is  easily  removed, 


STARCHY    FOODS  77 

and  an  inner  reddish  one,  sometimes  seen  on  rice  in  market. 
Paddy  is  the  name  given  to  grain  in  its  husks.  In  writings 
the  expression  "  paddy  "  fields  is  used  to  mean  rice  fields. 

The  outer  husk  is  removed  during  the  threshing,  but  the 
close  inner  husk  must  be  removed  by  careful  milling.  Dur- 
ing this  process  the  rice  is  ground  between  stones,  then 
pounded  in  mortars,  and  finally  winnowed  by  fanning  and 
screening  till  all  the  inner  husk  is  removed. 

The  rice  is  then  sifted  into  grades,  whole,  middlings,  and 
small  whole  grains. 

The  middlings  contain  the  broken  fragments.  This  is 
sometimes  ground  into  rice  flour. 

Food  Value.  —  Rice  is  deficient  in  protein  or  muscle  food, 
fat,  and  mineral  matter,  being  essentially  a  heat-producing 
food.  It  should  be  eaten  with  meat,  cheese,  peas,  lentils  or 
beans,  as  well  as  with  butter  or  bacon.  It  cannot  take  the 
place  of  potatoes  unless  much  fresh  fruit  is  used,  as  it  is  so 
poor  in  mineral  salts  that  its  exclusive  use  tends  to  favor 
scurvy. 

Method.  —  Material.     Rice,  cheese,  fruit,  milk,  pictures 
of  rice  fields,  slides  showing  form  of  granules,  and  showing 
its  use  in  adulteration  of  spices  and  condiments. 
Outline. 

r     Food  of  one-third  of  the  population  of  the 
HISTORY  J,  world;  mentioned  several  hundred  years  B.C. 
t  Used  by  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Name,  —  Oryza    sativa ;     Family,  —  The 

Grasses  ;  Climate,  —  Tropical ;  Part  used  as 
BOTANY  \f     ,       '      .  J 

tood,  —  Gram ;    Preparation  tor  market,  — 

[Milling;  Composition. 

Compare  with  other  grains.  See  table  in  chapter  on 
Foods,  p.  118. 

Uses.  —  Vegetable,  cakes,  puddings. 


78  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Practice.  —  Necessity  of  washing  rice  before  cooking. 
Boiled  rice  and  cheese,  steamed  rice,  —  using  water  or  milk, 
value  of. 

Browned  Rice.  —  Brown  rice  in  oven  as  you  would  coffee 
berry.  When  golden  brown,  steam.  Effect  is  similar  to 
what  preceding  experiment  ? 

The  steamed  rice  may  be  served  as  a  vegetable  or  with 
fruit  and  cream  as  pudding. 

Emphasize  the  necessity  of  having  each  rice  grain  whole 
and  dry ;  and  that  rice  contains  very  little  muscle  food,  and 
therefore  must  be  served  with  protein  foods. 

Essay  on  rice  as  a  food  may  be  the  home  work. 

If  possible  have  rice  growing  in  a  pot  for  pupils  to  see. 

BOILED    RICE   WITH    CHEESE    (-J-   RECIPE) 

Wash  one  tablespoonful  rice  by  rubbing  under  water,  so 
as  to  remove  all  dirt,  and  any  rice  starch  from  broken 
grains.  Drain  and  place  it  in  two  cups  boiling  water  con- 
taining one-half  teaspoonful  salt.  Boil  the  water  vigorously 
till  the  rice  is  tender,  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Lift  the 
rice  from  the  bottom  of  the  dish,  using  a  fork ;  never  stir 
it  while  cooking,  as  the  grains  must  be  individual.  When 
rice  is  tender,  drain  and  wash  with  hot  water,  pouring  it 
over  the  rice  in  the  sieve.  Return  rice  to  the  dish  and 
leave  it  uncovered  in  doorway  of  oven  or  on  the  back  of  the 
stove,  till  partly  dry.  Lift  in  with  a  fork  one  level  table- 
spoonful  grated  cheese.  Pile  lightly  in  a  dish  and  serve  as 
a  vegetable  or  substitute  for  meat  dish. 

STEAMED    RICE    (J    RECIPE) 

Wash  one  tablespoonful  rice.     Pour  over  it  three  table- 
spoonfuls  hot  water  and  cook  in  double  boiler  till  tender,  — 
about  forty-five  minutes.     (A  cup  placed  in  small  stew  pan 


STARCHY   FOODS  79 

may  be  used  in  place  of  double  boiler.)    Eemove  cover  from 
the  rice  and  let  excess  of  water  evaporate. 

This  method  retains  all  nitrogenous  products  and  all 
mineral  salts,  hence  it  is  the  better  way. 

BICE    PUDDING    (-J-   RECIPE) 

Soak  one  tablespoon  rice  one-half  hour  in  eight  table- 
spoons milk  ;  add  one  teaspoon  sugar.  Cook  in  improvised 
double  boiler  three  hours.  Transfer  to  tiny  pudding  dish 
and  brown  in  oven.  Serve  hot  or  cold. 

CURRY    OF    RICE    (^    RECIPE) 

Wash  one  tablespoon  rice ;  pour  over  it  three  tablespoons 
stock  or  milk  seasoned  with  |  teaspoon  sifted  curry  powder, 
and  boil  in  double  boiler  forty-five  minutes. 

STARCH  AS  THICKENING  AGENT 

Method.  —  Materials.  Corn  starch,  potato,  baker's  choco- 
late, sugar,  milk,  eggs. 

Outline.  —  Eeview  the  work  given  on  pp.  38-39. 

Starch.  —  Cold  water  has  no  effect.  Hot  water  hardens 
in  lumps. 

(1)  Hot   water   on   cold  water   mixture    makes   smooth 
paste. 

(2)  Boiling  water  on  sugar  and  flour  mixture  makes  a 
smooth  product. 

(3)  Flour   and  very  hot    fat  form   a   soluble    product, 
dextrin,   which  is   soluble  in  liquids,   forming  a  smooth 
gelatin-like  product. 

USE  OF  METHODS  IN  COOKERY 

Method  No.  1.  —  Thickening  soups,  gravies,  sauces. 
Method  No.  2.  —  Puddings,  cream  pies,  pudding  sauces. 


80  HANDBOOK    OF    DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

Method  No.  8.  —  Meat  sauces,  vegetable  sauces,  soup 
thickening. 

Practice. — Potato  soup,  chocolate  cream  pudding,  va- 
nilla sauce,  corn  starch  pudding,  chocolate  sauce,  tapioca 
pudding. 

Emphasize  the  necessity  of  thorough  cooking  to  prevent 
the  "  raw  starch  "  taste.  The  recipes  used  may  be  any,  so 
that  they  illustrate  the  principles. 

Essay  to  be  on  starchy  foods. 

Recipes  for  Pupils 
POTATO  SOUP  (J  RECIPE) 

1  small  potato ;  f  cup  milk ;  £  inch  cube  onion ;  f  tea- 
spoon salt ;  ^  teaspoon  celery  salt ;  J-  teaspoon  white  pep- 
per ;  1  teaspoon  butter ;  -J-  teaspoon  flour. 

Prepare  the  potato  as  in  recipe  for  riced  potato.  Heat 
the  onion  with  the  milk  in  double  boiler.  Add  flour  to  the 
melted  butter,  and  when  flour  and  butter  are  thoroughly 
united,  slowly  add  the  milk,  one  tablespoonful  at  a  time, 
till  four  have  been  added.  Then  add  the  seasoning  and  the 
remainder  of  the  milk.  Return  the  product  to  the  double 
boiler,  and  add  the  mashed  or  riced  potato.  Heat 
thoroughly  and  serve  in  hot  dish. 

CHOCOLATE    CREAM    PUDDING  • 

1  cup  milk;  4  tablespoons  sugar;  2  tablespoons  corn 
starch;  1  ounce  chocolate;  |-  teaspoon  vanilla;  1  egg- 
white. 

Melt  the  chocolate  in  the  double  boiler,  slowly  add  the 
milk, -and  heat  to  70°  C.  (Wrinkles  appear  on  surface  of 
milk.)  Mix  the  corn  starch  thoroughly  with  the  sugar; 
add  to  it  the  hot  milk.  Return  both  to  the  double  boiler 
and  cook  till  smooth  and  thick,  stirring  *t  all  the  time. 
Remove  from  fire.  Beat  the  white  of  the  egg  till  stiff,  but 


STARCHY   FOODS  81 

not  flaky,  and  fold  it  into  the  partly  cooled  pudding. 
Flavor  it  with  vanilla  and  place  it  in  wet  pudding  mould. 
Stand  on  ice  for  three  hours.  Serve  with  vanilla  sauce. 

VANILLA    SAUCE 

£  cup  boiling  water;  4  tablespoons  sugar;  2  level  tea- 
spoons corn  starch;  1  teaspoon  butter;  1  yolk  egg;  ± 
teaspoon  vanilla. 

Mix  sugar  and  corn  starch ;  add  the  boiling  water  slowly ; 
boil  five  minutes;  add  the  butter.  Beat  the  yolk  of  egg 
till  thick.  Slowly  add  to  it  the  cooked  mixture.  If  heat 
has  not  cooked  the  yolk  return  the  product  to  double  boiler 
and  stir  and  cook  till  the  mixture  is  smooth  and  velvety. 
Immediately  pour  into  sauce  dish,  and  add  flavoring  when 
cool.  Serve  with  or  around  the  pudding. 

TAPIOCA,  ARROWROOT,  SAGO 

Method.  —  Material.      Tapioca,     sago,    arrowroot,    milk, 
eggs,  fruit  juice.     Examine  microscopic  slides  showing  the 
starch  granules. 
Outline. 

(1)     Source  of  each  :  — 

A.  Tapioca. 

Cassava  plant. 
Native  of  South  America. 
Family  —  Spurge. 
Part  used  —  root. 
Preparation :  — 

Roots  grated,  starch  washed  free  from  cellulose  and  the 
poisonous  acrid  juice. 

B.  Arrowroot :  — 

(1)  Name  came  from  poison  found  in  root  of  an- 
other member  of  the  same  family,  the  poison 
being  used  by  Indians  to  tip  their  arrows. 


82  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

(2)  Native  of  West  Indies.     True  arrowroot  comes 

from  members  of  banana  family. 

(3)  Part  used  is  root  stock. 

(4)  Florida  arrowroot  comes  from  root   of   a  plant 

belonging  to  pine  family.     Arrowroot  in  China 
is  from  a  water-lily. 
C.   Sago:  — 

From  Sago  Palm. 

Part  used  is  the  starch  from  the  centre  of  trunk. 
Composition  and  food  value ; 

Test  with  tincture  of  Iodine. 
Cookery  :  — 

Used  as  thickening  agent  in  puddings  and  jellies. 
Practice :  — 
Tapioca  Cream. 
Tapioca  Jelly. 
Sago  Pudding. 
Delicate  Pudding. 

(Using  arrowroot  starch.) 

Recipes  for  Pupils 

TAPIOCA   CREAM 

^  cup  tapioca. 
-J-  cup  water. 

1  cup  milk. 

2  tablespoons  sugar. 
Yolks  2  eggs. 

Soak  the  washed  tapioca  over  night  in  ^  cup  water.  In 
the  morning  add  it  to  the  milk  in  double  boiler,  and  cook 
till  tapioca  is  clear. 

Beat  the  sugar  and  yolks  together  till  creamy,  and  slowly 
add  the  cooked  tapioca  and  milk.  Eeturn  then  to  double 
boiler,  and  cook  and  stir  till  product  is  creamy.  It  usually 
requires  five  minutes.  Cool,  and  flavor  with  i-  teaspoon 
lemon  or  vanilla. 


STARCHY   FOODS  83 

SAGO    PUDDING 

\  cup  sago. 
1  cup  milk. 

1  egg. 

2  tablespoons  sugar. 
Jg-  teaspoon  salt. 

\  teaspoon  vanilla. 

Wash  the  sago,  and  soak  two  hours  in  milk.  Beat  the  egg 
and  sugar  together,  add  the  milk  and  sago,  the  salt,  and  the 
vanilla.  Place  in  pudding  dish,  and  bake  in  slow  oven  one 
hour.  Serve  hot  or  cold. 

CORN 

Facts.  —  Corn,  as  it  is  called  in  United  States,  is  an 
American  plant  belonging  to  the  grass  family.  It  is  known 
as  maize  in  England,  as  mais  in  Germany,  and  granturco  in 
Italy. 

When  ground,  corn  is  known  as  Indian  meal.  In  Italy 
this,  made  into  a  porridge  or  mush,  forms  a  staple  article  of 
diet  under  the  name  of  "  polenta,"  in  Ireland,  "  stirabout," 
and  in  British  Honduras  it  is  called  "  corn  lob." 

In  the  United  States  this  fine  meal  is  used  with  wheat 
flour  in  making  unleavened  bread.  In  Mexico  a  preparation 
called  tortillas  is  made  from  corn,  which  has  been  first  soaked 
in  lime  water  and  then  ground  between  a  stone  slab  and  a 
roller,  formed  into  thin,  flat  cakes,  and  cooked  on  thin  iron 
plates  or  heated  stones. 

In  our  markets  corn  is  found  as  meal,  which  is  the  entire 
kernel  ground  fine ;  or,  it  is  first  soaked  in  lye  solution  to 
soften  the  outer  coating,  then  rubbed  and  washed  to  remove 
it.  The  hulled  corri  is  known,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
parts  broken  or  split,  as  coarse  hominy,  fine  hominy,  grits, 
and  samp. 

The  hulled  corn,   steamed  and    rolled,  is    sold    as   corn 


84  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

flakes,  or  cerealine.     Washed  free  from  its  cellulose,  the 
residue  is  known  as  corn  starch. 

Food  Value. 

Because  of  the  very  small  percentage  of  gluten,  corn  prod- 
ucts, as  meal,  may  not  be  used  alone  to  form  light  bread;  but, 
mixed  with  flour,  it  forms  a  food  somewhat  less  nutritious 
than  wheat  bread. 

Corn  is  quite  rich  in  fats,  but  poor  in  protein,  and  stands, 
therefore,  between  rice  and  wheat  in  nutritive  value.  Alone, 
it  cannot  be  used  as  a  food,  but  eaten  with  milk  or  other 
product  which  supplies  the  lack  in  muscle  food,  it  is  a  very 
fair  food,  though  always  rich  in  heat  producers. 

It  must  always,  no  matter  what  the  form,  be  thoroughly 
cooked  if  it  is  to  be  of  most  value.  In  preparing  mush  the 
product  should  be  cooked  at  least  two  hours  in  a  double 
boiler. 

Method.  —  Material.     Corn  on  the  ear  with  its  husk  show- 
ing ;  pictures  of  corn  fields  and  corn  in  shock.     Samples  of 
corn ;  preparations  in  market.     Iodine  as  test. 
Outline. 

(1)  History  —  Native   of   United   States.      Introduction 

into   England  in   1846.     Use  in   Italy.     Use   in 
Mexico. 

(2)  Literature  —  "  Hiawatha." 

"  Mondamin,"  Bayard  Taylor. 
"  Corn  Song,"  Whittier. 

(3)  Botany  —  Name  in  various  countries. 

Family  —  The  Grasses. 
Varieties. 

White. 

Yellow. 

Red. 

Sweet. 

Pop. 
Cultivation. 


STARCHY   FOODS  85 

(4)  Preparations  in  the  Market : — 

Samp. 

Hominy  —  coarse,  fine. 

Meal. 

Corn  flour  or  starch. 

Cerealine  flakes. 

Sweet  corn. 

Pop  corn. 

(5)  Food  Value. 

(6)  Uses:- 

Breakfast  food  or  grain. 

Bread. 

Vegetable. 

Grape  sugar. 

Whiskey. 

Fodder  for  animals. 

Fuel  in  the  West. 

(7)  Cookery:  — 

Essentials. 

Soften  cellulose,  hydrate    starch.      Time  de- 
pending on  form. 

(8)  Practice:  — 

(a)  Eeview  of  use  of  starch  as  thickening  agent. 

Green  corn  soup. 
Corn  chowder. 

(b)  Cooking  of  vegetables  in  boiling  water :  — 

Green  corn  on  cob,  boiled  or  steamed. 
Boiled  hominy  (5  hours). 

(c)  Use  as  bread  in  different  parts  of  the  country:  — 

Corn  muffins. 

Corn  cake. 

Hoe  cake. 

Rhode  Island  johnny  cake. 

Corn  dodger. 

Indian  bannock. 


86  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Have  corn  growing  so  that  pupils  are  familiar  with  its 
appearance.  Steam  the  green  corn  with  its  husks  on  if  it 
be  in  season,  otherwise  use  canned  corn  in  other  recipes. 


GREEN    CORN    OX    COB 

Remove  the  husks  and  all  "  silk."  Place  at  once  in  kettle 
of  boiling  water  and  boil  the  water  ten  minutes. 

Remove  from  water,  heap  on  a  platter  and  serve  at  once ;  or 

Remove  only  the  outer  husks,  leaving  the  inner  delicate 

greener  ones.     Place  in  boiling  water,  and  boil  water  fifteen 

minutes.     When  done,  remove  silky  threads  and  serve  in 

husks. 

GREEN    CORN    SOUP 

•J-  cup  raw  pulp  from  3  ears  ripe  green  corn ;  1  cup  milk ; 
\  teaspoon  sugar ;  1  teaspoon  salt ;  yL  teaspoon  white  pepper ; 
I  teaspoon  butter ;  1  teaspoon  flour. 

With  a  sharp  knife  score  or  cut  through  the  middle  of 
each  row  of  kernels  and  then  remove  pulp  by  scraping. 
This  secures  the  pulp  free  from  tough  wall  of  the  grain. 

Break  the  cob  in  short  pieces  and  cover  with  cold  water. 
Raise  water  to  the  boiling  point  and  boil  twenty  minutes. 
Strain,  and  if  there  is  not  a  cup  of  water  add  boiling  water 
to  fill  cup.  To  this  water  add  the  pulp  of  kernels,  and  cook 
fifteen  minutes ;  then  add  the  salt,  pepper,  sugar,  and  milk, 
and  again  warm  in  double  boiler.  Melt  the  butter,  add  the 
flour,  and  stir  and  cook  thoroughly  to  change  it  to  a  gummy 
substance.  Slowly  add  the  milk  and  corn  mixture  and  boil 
five  minutes,  or  till  smooth  and  creamy. 

Canned  corn  may  be  used  in  place  of  green  corn.  In  this 
case  cook  the  corn  twenty  minutes'  in  boiling  water  and  then 
press  through  a  sieve  to  remove  tough  cell  walls. 


STARCHY   FOODS  87 


BOILED    HOMINY 

1  part  coarse  hominy,  5  parts  cold  water. 

Soak  the  hominy  in  the  water  over  night.  Drain  off  the 
water  and  heat  it  to  the  boiling  temperature;  slowly  add 
the  soaked  hominy,  carefully  stirring.  Raise  all  to  the  boil- 
ing point,  place  it  in  double  boiler  and  cook  four  hours.  If 
not  soaked,  five  hours'  cooking  in  double  boiler  is  necessary. 

Serve  as  a  breakfast  grain  or  use  seasoned  with  salt  in 
form  of  vegetables. 

Fine  hominy  requires  four  parts  of  water  and  four  hours' 
cooking  in  double  boiler. 

POTATOES 

Facts.  —  Food  Value.  The  potato  contains  about  seventy- 
five  per  cent  of  water,  or  from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent 
more  than  meats. 

The  remaining  one-fourth  is  mainly  starch,  the  protein 
being  but  little  over  two  per  cent. 

Weight  for  weight  the  potato  contains  one-fourth  as 
much  starch  as  rice  and  one-fourth  as  much  protein,  but 
contains  twice  as  much  mineral  matter. 

Man  is  able  to  digest  nearly  all  the  starch  found  in  the 
potato,  but  only  two-thirds  of  the  protein,  so  that  the  potato 
is  essentially  a  carbonaceous  or  starchy  food,  valuable  only 
for  heat  production.  Because  of  the  mineral  matter  in 
potatoes  they  are  classed  among  the  valuable  vegetable 
foods. 

Soaking  peeled  potatoes  in  cold  water  not  only  removes 
part  of  the  starch,  but  wastes  a  very  large  portion  of  the 
small  amount  of  protein  in  the  potato,  hence  cooking  the 
potato  in  boiling  water  with  the  skin  on  is  the  least  waste- 
ful method. 


88  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

WHITE  POTATO 

Materials.  —  Potatoes,  eggs,  meat,  fat  for  deep  frying,  fat 
for  sauteing,  onion. 
Outline. 

(1)  History:  — 

Native  of  Chili,  Peru,  and  Mexico. 

Introduced  into  Europe  1565. 

Became  popular  at  end  of  eighteenth  century. 

(2)  Botany :- 

Name  —  Solanum  tuberosum. 

Family  —  Nightshade.     (Egg  plant  and  tomato 

belongs  to  same  family.) 
Climate  —  Tropical  and  Temperate. 
Propagation  —  by  buds  or  eyes  in  tubers. 
Part  of  plant  used. 

(3)  Composition :  — 

[Note  :  —  Peel  or  rind  contains  a  poison  dissipated  by  boiling  tem- 
perature. ] 

(4)  Food  value. 

(5)  Uses:  — 

Vegetable. 
Laundry  starch. 
Dextrin  or  British  Gum. 
Grape  sugar. 
Brandy. 

(6)  Cookery :- 

(a)   Boiled, 

Product  used  for  Potato  Balls. 
(6)    Steamed, 

Product  used  for  Lyonnaise  potatoes, 
(c)    Baked, 

Used  for  stuffed  potatoes. 


STARCHY   FOODS  89 

(d)  Fried, 

Saratoga  or  French. 

(e)  Saute, 
French  potatoes. 

Points  to  note  are  that  starch  granules  should  be  dry 
and  mealy,  cellulose  softened,  otherwise  the  product  is  not 
attractive. 

The  sweet  potato  may  be  used  in  this  lesson,  but 
pupils  should  know  that  botanically  they  are  not  closely 
related. 

In  frying  the  cellulose  is  toughened,  leaving  product 
stiff  or  hard. 

Recipes  for  Pupils 

POTATO    BALLS 

Boil  one  medium-sized  potato.  When  tender,  mash 
thoroughly  and  add  for  every  half  cup  potato  1  teaspoon 
salt,  J-g-  teaspoon  white  pepper,  2  teaspoons  beaten  egg. 

Mix  thoroughly  and  with  floured  hands  shape  into  balls 
one  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter.  Place  them  on  an  oiled 
granite  pie  plate,  brush  them  with  the  beaten  egg,  and 
brown  in  a  hot  oven.  Serve  on  platter  around  a  meat 
product,  as  roast  or  braised  meat,  or  serve  in  separate  dish. 

LYONNAISE    POTATOES 

Wash  and  remove  eyes  from  one  old  potato.  Place  in 
steamer  over  boiling  water  and  steam  till  tender.  Ke- 
plenish  with  boiling  water,  as,  if  steaming  stops,  the 
potato  will  be  watery. 

When  just  tender  place  the  potato  in  the  oven  to  dry  for  a 
few  moments.  Remove  skin  by  drawing  it  off  without  cut- 
ting the  potato.  Cool.  When  cold  cut  the  potato  into  dice 
and  season  with  salt  and  pepper. 


90  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Cook  1  teaspoon  onion  in  1  tablespoon  butter  till  onion  is 
brown.  Add  the  potato  and  continue  to  cook,  shaking  the 
dish  to  hasten  the  absorption  of  the  butter  by  the  potato. 
Add  |  teaspoon  chopped  parsley,  and  serve  hot,  piled  on  a 
warm  platter. 

SAUTED    POTATOES 

These  are  prepared  as  in  recipe  for  Lyonnaise  potatoes, 
except  that  the  onion  is  omitted. 

STUFFED    POTATOES 

Select  smooth,  even-sized  potatoes,  scrub,  and  place  in  hot 
oven  till  when  fork  is  inserted  steam  escapes.  This  takes 
about  45  minutes.  While  hot,  cut  slices  from  top  of  each, 
and  scoop  out  the  inside.  Mash  it  quickly  and  season  with 
1  teaspoon  butter,  y1^  teaspoon  salt,  and  1  tablespoon  finely 
chopped  ham  to  every  half  cup  mashed  potato.  Fill  the 
skins  with  this  mixture,  rounding  it  slightly  above  the 
edge.  Set  in  the  oven  to  brown  the  tops  —  about  5  minutes. 

SARATOGA    POTATOES 

Wash  and  pare  a  potato  of  even  diameter.  Slice  (with 
vegetable  chipper)  into  ice  water.  Let  them  soak  two  hours. 
Drain,  and  dry  quickly  between  cloths.  Immerse  a  few  at 
a  time  in  smoking  hot  fat  (185°  0.).  -  Keep  them  turning  till 
a  golden  brown.  Drain,  and  place  the  slices  on  unglazed 
paper.  Salt,  and  serve  hot.  They  may  be  made  several 
days  before  using  and  then  warmed  in  the  oven. 

TRANSFORMATION  OF  STARCH  INTO  MORE  SOLUBLE 
COMPOUNDS 

Method.  —  Materials.  Crackers,  bread,  corn  starch,  acid, 
HC1  or  H2S04,  Fehling's  tablets,  malt  extract,  grape  sugar. 
Test-tubes. 


STARCHY  FOODS  91 

Outline. 

(1)  By  Heat :  Review  of  work  on  dextrin,  chew  crust  of 
bread  and  note  sweet  flavor. 

(2)  During  Fermentation :    To  thin,  warm,  but   not  hot, 
flour  paste  add  yeast  solution. 

EXPERIMENT  12.  (a)  1  teaspoon  flour;  2  tablespoons 
boiling  water;  \  yeast  cake  dissolved  in  1  teaspoon  cool 
water.  Leave  for  3  hours  in  warm  place. 

(6)  To  1  teaspoonful  of  the  solution  add  a  Fehling's  test 
tablet,  to  be  procured  at  any  drug  store.  Apply  heat 
gently. 

Repeat  this  experiment,  using  unfermented  starch  paste. 

The  starch  solution  should  remain  blue  in  color,  while  the 
fermented  product  should  turn  yellow  or  red,  showing  pres- 
ence of  a  sugar. 

Should  starchy  foods  be  cooked  ? 

EXPERIMENT  13.  Prepare  a  starch  paste  as  in  Experi- 
ment 4  and  add  to  cool  product  amylolytic  extract  of  pan- 
creas (purchased  in  druggist's  shop).  Leave  for  half  or 
one  hour.  Test  with  Fehling's  reaction. 

EXPERIMENT  14.  Let  each  pupil  chew  for  a  long  time  a 
piece  of  cracker  and  tell  what  taste  is  developed. 

Resume  of  digestion  of  starch  and  its  use  in  human 
economy. 

When  may  infants  be  fed  starchy  foods  and  be  able  to 
digest  them  ? 

Malt  Extract. 

EXPERIMENT  15.  To  starch  paste  add  malt  extract  and 
leave  for  one  hour.  Test  with  Fehling's  tablet. 

May  malt  extract  be  used  with  starchy  foods  ? 

The  experiments  in  this  lesson  may  be  performed  before 
the  class,  but  if  possible  let  the  pupils  do  the  work  so  that 
they  may  gain  a  clearer  insight  into  the  subject. 

Let  each  pupil  see  that  her  saliva  is  alkaline,  using  a  tiny 


92  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

piece  of  red  litmus  paper.     Between  meals  the  reaction  may 
be  very  faint. 

Let  each  pupil  write  an  essay  on  digestion  of  starch. 

STARCHY  FOODS  FOR  THE  SICK 

Materials.  —  Bice,  milk,  cream,  eggs,  sugar,  malt  extract, 
bread,  Fehling's  tablet,  baby  foods  as  found  in  the  market, 
iodine. 
Outline. 

(1)  Eeview  of  digestion  of  starch.     See  p.  66. 

(2)  Starch  partially  changed  into  soluble  form  by  long 

cooking. 

(3)  Starch  changed  into  dextrin  by  high  heat. 

(4)  Starch  changed  into  maltose  by  action  of  malt  extract. 
Practice. 

Cream  of  Rice  Soup.  —  (a)  Boil  rice  in  white  stock  till 
very  tender. 

(6)  Put  through  sieve. 

(c)  Add  cream  and  season  with  salt  and  pepper. 

Proportion :  £  cup  rice,  1  pint  soup  stock,  1  tablespoon 
cream,  salt  and  pepper. 

Rice  Cream.  —  Cook  rice  with  milk  in  double  boiler  for 
three  hours.  Eub  through  sieve,  add  sugar  and  salt.  Heat 
and  pour  on  to  beaten  eggs.  Return  to  double  boiler  and 
cook  till  creamy,  —  five  minutes.  Flavor  with  lemon. 

2  tablespoons  rice,  2  cups  milk,  2  tablespoons  sugar,  1  salt 
spoon  salt,  2  eggs. 

(3)  Bread  made  into  toast  by  long  heating  in  oven  or  till 
golden  brown  throughout ;  dipped  in  hot  milk  and  served 
on  hot  plate  with  cream  sauce. 

(4)  Rice  Gruel.  — 2  tablespoons  cooked  rice,  1  pint  milk. 
Cook  together  in  double  boiler  half  hour,  put  through  sieve, 
season  with  salt  and  pepper  and  add  one  tablespoon  malt 
extract.     Leave  for  one  hour  and  serve  either  cold  or  hot. 


STARCHY   FOODS  93 

Impress  the  necessity  of  thorough,  cooking  of  starchy 
foods  when  they  are  to  be  used  in  diet  for  the  sick. 

Insist  on  toast  being  made  correctly  and  served  daintily 
and  hot. 

Let  part  of  the  rice  gruel  be  tested  with  Fehling's  reaction 
to  show  presence  of  maltose. 

Give  talk  on  baby  foods  and  dangers  from  their  use. 
Test  them  with  iodine. 

ADVANCED  COUKSE  —  STARCHY  FOODS,   AND  HOW 
TO   COOK  THEM 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chemistry  in  Daily  Life,  Lassar  and  Colin ;  Chemistry  of  Cookery, 
W.  M.  Williams ;  Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning,  Eichards  and 
Elliott ;  Handbook  of  Household  Science,  Youmans ;  Organic  Chem- 
istry and  Inorganic  Chemistry,  Remsen ;  Practical  Dietetics,  Thomp- 
son;  Food  and  Feeding  (new  ed.),  Thompson;  Foods,  Church; 
Food,  Smith ;  Food  Composition  and  Analysis,  Blyth ;  Food  in 
Health  and  Disease,  Yeo  ;  The  Story  of  the  Bacteria,  Prudden ;  The 
Story  of  Germ  Life,  Conn  ;  Foods,  Atwater  ;  Farmer's  Bulletin,  No.  23 
(to  be  obtained  gratis  from  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.C.)  ;  Investigations  on  the  Chemistry  and  Economy  of  Foods, 
Atwater,  Bulletin  21,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1895  (to  be 
obtained  for  fifteen  cents  from  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.)  ;  Boston  Cook  Book,  Lincoln  ;  Boston  School  Text-book, 
Farmer ;  Physiology  for  Beginners,  Foster  and  Shore ;  Physiological 
Chemistry,  Novy  ;  Essentials  of  Chemical  Physiology,  Halliburton. 


NOVEMBER 


FOODS 

BY  L.  L.  W.  WILSON,  PH.D., 

OF  THE  PHILADELPHIA  NORMAL  SCHOOL 


CHAPTER   IV 

FOODS 

BY  L.  L.  W.  WILSON,  PH.D. 
GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning,  Mrs.  Richards  and  Miss  Elliott ; 
Food  Materials  and  their  Adulterations,  Mrs.  Richards ;  Chemistry  of 
Cookery,  W.  Mathieu  Williams ;  Food  and  its  Functions,  James 
Knight ;  Foods,  Smith ;  Science  of  Nutrition,  Edward  Atkinson ; 
Food  Products  of  the  World,  Dr.  Mary  Green  ;  Food  in  Health  and 
Disease,  Dr.  I.  Burney  Yeo ;  Food  and  Feeding  (last  edition),  Sir 
Henry  Thompson  ;  Rumford  Kitchen  Leaflets. 

The  following  invaluable  pamphlets  may  be  had  free  on  application 
to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C. :  Farmers'  Bul- 
letins :  No.  23,  Food,  Nutritive  Value  and  Cost ;  No.  29,  Souring  of 
Milk,  and  Other  Changes  in  Milk  Products ;  No.  34,  Meats,  Composi- 
tion and  Cooking;  No.  42,  Facts  about  Milk;  No.  57,  Butter-Making 
on  the  Farm;  No.  63,  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm;  No.  71,  Some 
Essentials  of  Beef  Production  ;  No.  74,  Milk  as  Food  ;  No.  93,  Sugar 
as  Food,  Mary  Hinman  Abels. 

.  Bulletin  No.  21,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1895,  Investiga- 
tions on  the  Chemistry  and  Economy  of  Food,  Atwater.  This  may 
be  obtained  for  fifteen  cents  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
Washington,  D.C. 

The  following  magazine  articles  may  be  of  value  :  Forum,  vol.  13, 
p.  448 ;  vol.  16,  p.  110.  Century,  vol.  11,  p.  238 ;  vol.  12,  pp.  59,  237, 
397,  733;  vol.  14,  pp.  135,  257;  vol.  21,  p.  101.  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  vol.  22,  p.  677  ;  vol.  26,  p.  468 ;  vol.  29,  pp.  63,  250.  Chau- 
tauquau,  vol.  22,  p.  577  ;  vol.  23,  p.  174.  McClure,  vol.  3,  p.  303. 

The  files  and  the  current  numbers  of  the  American  Kitchen  Maga- 
zine are  suggestive  and  valuable.  Especially  valuable  in  this  connection 
H  97 


98  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

are  the  following :  vol.  4,  Water  and  Air  as  Food,  p.  257 ;  Experi- 
ments with  Starch,  p.  218  ;  vol.  5,  Drinking  Water  for  Summer 
Tourists,  p.  141  ;  vol.  6,  Diet  in  Health,  p.  156 ;  Providing  Food  for 
a  Typical  American  Family,  p.  26 ;  Experiments  with  Milk,  p.  263  ; 
vol.  4,  Experiments  with  Albumen,  Fish,  and  Meats,  pp.  66,  230. 

See  also  the  bibliography  given  in  the  chapter  on  Starchy  Foods,  on 
Fish,  on  Bread,  and  on  Cooking  of  Proteids. 

Although  none  of  the  books  whose  titles  are  given  above  are  either 
too  technical  or  too  expensive  eventually  to  form  a  part  of  the  working 
library  of  the  grade  teacher,  yet  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  have  not 
access  to  large  libraries,  the  writer  would  suggest  beginning  with  the 
government  publications,  later  adding  to  these  Mrs.  Richards's  two 
little  books,  Dr.  Green's  Food  Products,  Yeo's  Food  in  Health  and 
Disease,  Thomspon's  Practical  Dietetics,  and  Mathieu  Williams's 
Chemistry  of  Cookery. 

Food. —  Atwater  defines  food  as  material  which,  when 
taken  into  the  body,  serves  either  to  form  tissue  or  yield 
energy,  or  both.  This  definition,  he  says,  includes  all 
ordinary  food  materials,  since  they  both  build  tissue  and 
yield  energy.  It  includes  sugar  and  starch,  because  they 
yield  energy  and  form  fatty  tissue.  It  excludes  the  so- 
called  nitrogenous  extractives  of  meat  (the  chief  part  of 
beef  tea),  and  likewise  tea  and  coffee,  because  they  neither 
build  tissue  nor  yield  energy,  although  they  may  at  times 
be  useful  aids  to  nutrition. 

MILK 

Facts.  —  Milk  contains  all  the  elements  needed  for  food, 
and  each  in  about  the  right  proportion.  It  is,  moreover, 
easy  to  digest.  For  these  reasons  it  has  been  justly  called 
a  perfect  food.  It  is  not  only  the  exclusive  food  during  the 
more  or  less  brief  infancy  of  the  mammals,  but  many  adults, 
even  at  the  present  time,  live  for  the  most  part  on  it,  drink- 
ing from  four  to  seven  pints  per  day.  This  is  true  of  the 
Swedish  and  Norwegian  peasants,  the  inhabitants  of  Swit- 


FOODS  99 

zerland  and  the  Tyrol,  the  Bedouins  of  Arabia,  and  the 
people  dwelling  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Asia,  and  on 
the  pasture  lands  of  the  Sahara. 

It  is  the  main  dependence  of  the  modern  physician  in 
treatment  of  fever,  and  for  invalids  generally. 

In  earlier  ages,  and  indeed  even  now  in  many  countries, 
it  was  the  milk  of  asses,  goats,  camels,  that  was  common. 
Now  it  is  the  milk  of  the  cow  that  is  the  best  known.  This 
is  because  no  other  animal  can  be  so  easily  and  economically 
kept  and  propagated  in  proportion  to  its  milk  and  meat  pro- 
ducing powers.  x 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  milk  should  be  a  good 
quality,  unadulterated  with  water,  and  from  healthy,  well- 
fed  animals.  Only  an  expert  chemist  is  able  to  pronounce 
accurately  upon  the  quality  of  milk ;  but  public  attention 
has  been  called  of  late  so  much  to  the  subject  of  milk  that 
it  is  quite  possible,  even  in  cities,  to  secure  good  milk  by 
paying  a  fair  price  for  it. 

Milk  undiluted  with  water  clings  to  the  glass.  This  is 
a  much  safer  test  than  depending  upon  the  color.  That 
may  be  due  to  annetto. 

It  should  be  kept  from  the  beginning  in  absolutely  clean 
vessels,  and  in  a  cool  place. 

Cream.  —  After  the  milk  has  stood  for  some  hours  the 
cream  rises  to  the  top.  This  may  form  a  thick  layer,  one- 
fifth  of  the  total  thickness,  or  it  may  be  very  much  thinner, 
depending  for  the  most  part  upon  the  breed  of  cow. 

Butter. —  Even  a  superficial  examination  shows  that  cream 
is  very  rich  in  fat.  When  it  is  agitated  for  some  time  — 
churned  —  this  fat  shakes  itself  free  from  its  curdy  en- 
velope, and  is  collected  together  in  the  form  of  butter. 

Butter  still  contains  some  water  and  a  very  small  per  cent 
of  curd.  An  excess  of  either  of  these  elements  will  inter- 
fere with  its  keeping,  and  cause  it  to  become  rancid.  For 


100  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

this  reason  it  is  always  washed  and  pressed  as  free  from 
these  as  possible. 

Butter  must  be  kept  in  clean,  closed  dishes.  Even  a  few 
hours'  exposure  will  injure  its  flavor.  No  place  needs  to  be 
cleaner  than  a  dairy,  and  no  place  is  cleaner  than  an  up-to- 
date  butter  factory. 

Oleomargarine,  well  made,  looks  like  butter,  tastes  like  it, 
and  will  keep  sweet  much  longer  than  the  real  article.  It 
is,  moreover,  cheaper.  It  is  made  from  animal  fats  by  a 
chemical  process,  the  principle  of  which  was  discovered 
during  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  and  used  by  its  discoverer 
to  supply  the  French  army  with  butter. 

There  is  not  the  slightest  objection  to  buying,  selling,  and 
using  it,  under  its  proper  name ;  but,  of  course,  no  one 
wishes  to  pay  for  it  the  higher  price  of  butter. 

Buttermilk.  —  "A  man  may  live  without  bread,  but  with- 
out buttermilk  he  dies,"  says  a  proverb  of  one  of  the  shep- 
herd tribes  of  India.  The  laborers  of  Ireland,  Scotland, 
some  parts  of  England,  and  in  South  Wales,  as  well  as  the 
inhabitants  of  India,  know  its  food  value  and  drink  large 
quantities  of  it.  It  is,  of  course,  very  like  skim  milk  in 
composition.  The  principal  difference  is  that  some  of  its 
sugar  may  have  changed  to  lactic  acid.  To  this  it  owes  its 
peculiar  and  usually  pleasant,  slightly  acid  flavor. 

"Curds  and  Whey."  —  If  to  buttermilk  or  skim  milk  a 
little  vinegar  is  added,  the  fluid  will  separate  into  two  parts 
—  a  solid,  the  curd,  and  a  watery  fluid,  whey. 

The  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  letting  the  milk 
"  sour  "  by  long  standing.  The  resultant  of  the  latter  pro- 
cess is  called  bonny  clabber.  When  this  is  heated  and 
strained,  our  familiar  cottage  cheese  is  made. 

These  curds  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  protein  of 
the  milk.  In  the  whey  are  salts  and  free  acids  and  water. 
These  may  be  shown  by  evaporating  the  whey. 


FOODS  101 

Composition  of  Milk.  —  In  other  words,  this  crude  analysis 
of  milk  has  shown  that  it  is  composed  of  fat,  sugar,  curd 
(protein),  water,  and  salts  of  various  kinds.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  composition  of  milk  may  be  roughly  stated  about 
as  follows :  — 

Water 87 

Milk  sugar 047 

Fat 04 

Curd 036 

Salts 007 

Each  of  these  constituents  of  milk  may  be  considered  as 
the  representative  of  a  large  class  of  foods.  To  give  them 
their  scientific  terms,  sugar  represents  the  carbohydrates ; 
butter,  the  fats,  or  hydrocarbons ;  curd,  the  proteids  ;  whey, 
water  and  the  mineral  salts.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
learn  these  terms  until  later,  provided  that  in  your  own 
mind  you  put  the  sugars  and  starches  into  one  pigeon-hole ; 
the  fats  and  oils  into  another ;  curd  (cheese),  meat,  white 
of  an  egg,  into  another. 

Method. —  Discuss  milk.  Remind  the  children  of  their  early 
days.  Allow  them,  within  limits,  to  give  their  later  experi- 
ences with  cows. 

As  to  its  quality,  taste,  color,  etc.  Remind  them  and 
impress  upon  them  the  necessity  for  absolute  cleanliness  in 
caring  for  it. 

Put  a  half-pint  of  thick  cream  in  a  jar.  While  each 
child  is  taking  her  turn  at  shaking  it  vigorously,  the  others 
may  examine  smaller  portions  of  cream,  comparing  it  with 
milk. 

In  about  fifteen  minutes,  with  good  luck,  butter  will  come. 

How  does  this  differ  from  crur  butter  ?  What  should  we 
do  t'o  it  ? 

Fresh  butter  is  delicious.     Even  jaded  American  palates 


102  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

may  be  made  to  appreciate  it  if  it  is  eaten  upon  saltine 
crackers  and  with  it  is  drunk  a  cupful  of  the  buttermilk. 

Tell  the  children  of  the  healthy  European  custom  of  a 
slight  early  breakfast  of  bread,  freshly  made  butter,  and 
perhaps  honey.  Tell  them,  too,  that  Americans  are  recog- 
nized because  they  will  insist  upon  "  gilding  the  lily,"  that 
is  to  say,  salting  their  butter. 

Make  bonny  clabber,  or  to  milk  let  each  student  add  a 
little  vinegar.  What  has  happened  ?  What  do  the  curds 
look  like  ?  What  do  they  taste  like  ?  How  is  cheese 
made? 

What  does  whey  taste  like  ?     What  does  it  look  like  ? 

Of  what  five  things,  then,  is  milk  composed  ? 

Drill  on  the  component  parts  of  milk.  Ask  them  to  give 
other  foods  that  contain  fats,  sugars,  protein,  water. 

PROTEIN 

Protein  may  be  considered  under  three  heads,  the  pro- 
teids,  proper,  the  so-called  "extractives,"  and  the  amids. 
The  extractives  give  flavor  to  the  meat,  and  are  readily  ex- 
tracted from  it  with  cold  water.  They  are  in  consequence 
the  chief  ingredients  of  beef  tea.  The  amids,  vegetable  ex- 
tractives, are  found  in  asparagus,  potato,  turnips,  beets,  and 
many  other  foods. 

The  proteids  are  also  called  nitrogenous  compounds. 
This  name  has  as  much  reason  for  being  as  that  of  proteids, 
for  they  are  the  only  class  of  foods  containing  nitrogen. 

Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  the  excellent  reasons  for  call- 
ing these  food  materials  nitrogenous  compounds,  the  term' 
usually  applied  and  generally  preferred  is  protein  for  the 
whole,  and  proteids  for  the  tissue-forming  parts. 

The  white  of  eggs,  the  curd  of  milk,  lean  meat  (muscle),' 
gluten  of  wheat,  gelatin  and  glue  from  bones  and  gristle, 
are  the  commonest  proteids. 


FOODS  103 

Of  these,  gelatin,  glue,  and  gristle  are  commonly  called 
gelatinoids.  They  do  not  help  to  build  up  the  body,  but 
they  are  useful  fuel  foods,  and  for  this  reason  protect  the 
real  "  flesh  formers  "  from  consumption. 

These  real  flesh  formers,  or  muscle  formers  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  are  the  albuminoids.  This  is  a  word 
properly  restricted  to  the  first  proteids  mentioned,  viz.,  the 
white  of  the  egg  (albumen,  hence  the  name),  lean  meat, 
curd  of  milk,  gluten  of  wheat,  etc.  The  albuminoids  serve 
as  fuel,  too,  but  their  chief  function  is  the  manufacture  in 
the  body  of  muscle,  tendon,  and  cartilage. 

Not  only  are  meats,  fish,  eggs,  and  milk  rich  in  protein, 
but  so  also  are  many  foods  of  vegetable  origin,  notably  peas, 
beans,  wheat  and  graham  flour,  and  oatmeal.  But  the  pro- 
tein of  vegetables  is  much  less  easily  and  completely  di- 
gested than  that  of  animals,  and  therefore  they  are  not 
nearly  as  valuable  food  stuffs  as  the  more  easily  digested 
meats.  For  "  we  live  not  upon  what  we  eat,  but  upon  what 
we  digest." 

Summary.*  ^y_ 

Albuminoids  (flesh  formers,  sometimes  also  fuel 

food).  .    . 

White  of  egg. . 
Curd  of  rnilk. 


I.   Proteids 


Lean  meat. 


Gluten. 

Gelatinoids  (fuel  foods). 
Gelatin  from  bones. 
Gristle. 
II.   Extractives  (stimulants  only). 

Flavoring  juices  of  meat. 
III.   Amids  (fuel  foods). 

Found  in  potatoes  and  other  vegetables,  also  in  the  fruits. 

*  This  summary,  slightly  adapted  from  Atwater,  is  given  for  the  benefit 
of  the  teacher.  She  must  remember  that  the  gelatinoids,  extractives,  and 
amids,  after  all,  make  hut  a  small  part  of  the  protein  of  foods;  that, 


104  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

The  simplest  test  for  albumen  is  .the  fact  that  it  is  con- 
gested by  heat;  this  is  the  test  for  albumen  used  by  phy- 
sicians in  diagnosing  diseases  of  the  kidneys. 

Add  to  a  test-tube  one-third  full  of  the  suspected  fluid 
two  or  three  drops  of  strong  nitric  acid.  Heat  gently  —  a 
pale  yellow  color  will  result.  Allow  the  liquid  to  cool. 
Add  a  few  drops  of  ammonia.  A  deep  yellow  color  indicates 
the  presence  of  ammonia ;  a  deep  orange  color  indicates  the 
presence  of  albumen. 

Method.  —  The  relation  of  the  white  of  an  egg  to  the  yolk, 
its  color  and  its  consistency,  are  too  well  known  and  too  obvi- 
ous to  be  made  the  subject  of  much  study.  Instead,  ask  the 
question :  Is  the  white  of  the  egg  perfectly  soluble  in  cold- 
water?  Let  the  children  experiment.  What  is  the  effect 
of  heat  upon  it  ?  Let  them  boil  water  in  which  the  albumen 
has  been  dissolved,  first  filtering  it. 

Teach  them  the  name  of  this  class  of  foodstuffs,  and  their 
great  value  in  repairing  the  body.  They  and  their  kind  are 
the  only  flesh  builders ;  other  foods  are  fuel  foods.  Remind 
them  of  the  previous  experiment  with  curds,  and  tell  them 
that  the  great  value  of  meats  and  fish  lies  in  the  fact  that 
they,  too,  are  rich  in  proteids. 

These  are  all  of  animal  origin.  Do  any  foods  of  vegetable 
origin  contain  proteids  ?  Why  do  you  think  so  ?  (Herbiv- 
orous animals  must  get  their  flesh  builders  from  the  vege- 
table kingdom.) 

Let  each  child  chew  a  handful  of  clean  wheat,  breaking 
the  grains  carefully  in  the  mouth,  and  chewing  with  the  idea 
of  making  wheat  gum.  The  action  of  the  saliva  removes 

therefore,  it  is  approximately  correct  to  speak  of  the  protein  or  proteids, 
or  nitrogenous  foods,  as  the  flesh  formers.  It  is  much  better  to  teach  this 
thoroughly  than  that  the  children  should  have  in  their  minds  a  painfully 
distorted  picture  of  the  truth,  in  which,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  teaching 
them,  the  amids,  extractives,  and  gelatinoids  are  very  much  in  the  fore- 
ground. 


FOODS  105 

from  the  wheat  its  starch,  sugar,  and  some  of  the  oils. 
Practically  only  the  tenacious  gluten  is  left.  This  is  almost 
pure  protein.  Iodine  may  be  used  to  prove  the  original 
presence  of  the  starch  and  its  disappearance,  resulting  from 
the  process  of  chewing. 

The  presence  of  gluten  in  flour  may  be  demonstrated  by 
letting  each  child  wash  thoroughly  a  small  quantity  of  it 
loosely  tied  in  a  cheese-cloth  bag.  The  starch  and  sugar  is 
washed  away.  The  gummy  mass  left  behind  is  almost  pure 
protein. 

For  the  clearer  understanding  of  gelatinoids  it  might  be 
well  first  to  use  two  familiar  experiments  to  demonstrate  the 
dual  composition  of  bones. 

First,  burn  a  good-sized  bone  in  a  hot  fire,  protecting  it 
from  the  charring  contact  with  the  flame,  if  possible.  All 
the  animal  matter  will  be  burned  out,  leaving  behind  only  a 
white,  porous,  limy  framework.  Children  will  do  this 
work  at  home  under  direction,  and  love  to  own  and  exhibit 
the  resulting  specimens. 

Second,  cover  a  fair-sized  clean  bone  with  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  over  night.  In  the  morning  the  salts  of  lime 
will  be  dissolved.  The  animal  matter  which  remains  is  of 
the  nature  of  gristle.  The  bone  may  be  twisted  and  bent,  or 
even  tied  in  a  knot,  with  ease. 

This  animal  matter  is  a  gelatinoid. 

To  show  this  let  perfectly  clear  bones  simmer  for  several 
hours.  Let  each  child  examine  the  water.  Eemove  the 
bones.  Evaporate  the  greater  portion  of  the  water  by 
boiling.  Set  the  rest  away  to  cool.  Show  the  class  the 
jelly-like  resulting  gelatinoid.  It  will  dissolve  again  by 
warming  it. 

To  demonstrate  the  extractives,  let  each  child  examine 
a  small  piece  of  raw  lean  meat,  noting  in  passing  the 
muscle  fibres  and  connective  tissues.  Let  each  put  her 


106  HANDBOOK    OP    DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

piece  in  cold,  slightly  salted  water,  watching  the  extraction 
of  the  juices,  and  later  examining  both  the  meat  and  the 
liquid. 

The  object  of  these  experiments  has  been  merely  to 
familiarize  the  children  with  the  various  forms  of  protein, 
to  add  to  his  vocabulary  the  words  proteids  and  extrac- 
tives, with  possibly  the  terms  albuminoids  and  gelatinoids, 
although  these  last  terms  are  not  nearly  so  essential  as  the 
facts  concerning  them. 

THE  CARBOHYDRATES 

By  this  term  is  meant  compounds  made  up  of  the  carbon, 
and  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  certain  definite  proportions. 

In  this  class  may  be  included  starch,  the  sugars,  cellulose. 

For  facts  concerning  them  and  methods  of  teaching  see 
the  chapter  on  Starchy  Foods. 

THE  HYDROCARBONS 

Facts.  —  The  hydrocarbons  (fats  and  oils)  contain  the 
same  chemical  elements  as  the  carbohydrates,  viz.,  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  but  the  relative  proportion  of  the  oxy- 
gen is  much  smaller.  For  their  combustion  in  the  body, 
therefore,  more  oxygen  must  be  taken  from  the  air.  Conse- 
quently from  them  a  greater  quantity  of  heat  is  evolved. 
They  are  obviously  the  most  efficient  fuel  foods,  and  are, 
therefore,  relatively  more  used  in  the  northern  climes,  and 
in  dead  of  winter,  than  in  warmer  regions  and  in  summer. 
Luckily  instinct  taught  us  this  long  before  science  demon- 
strated it. 

Fats  are  also  stored  up  in  the  body  for  times  of  need. 
It  is  thought  that  they  pass  through  the  mouth  and  stomach 
absolutely  unchanged.  Even  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice 


FOODS  107 

seem  only  to  emulsify  it,  and  this,  after  all,  is  merely  a 
physical  change.  The  finely  divided  oil  is  carried  by  the 
blood  and  deposited  in  the  spaces  between  the  muscle 
bundles,  ready  to  be  used  when  needed. 

Eat  is  found  in  most  food  materials.  It  is  found  in  large 
quantities  in  meats  (tallow,  lard) ;  in  milk  (butter) ;  in 
various  vegetables,  such  as  cotton  seed,  olives,  etc. 

Method.  —  Show  the  children  fat  in  connection  with  meal. 
What  is  it  ?  What  color  is  it  ?  Have  you  ever  seen  it 
yellow  in  color  ?  What  did  that  indicate  ?  (Age.)  Heat 
the  fat.  What  change  takes  place  ? 

Do  we  get  fats  or  oils  in  vegetable  food  ?  Why  do  you 
think  so  ? 

Distribute  an  oily  seed,  such  as  nutmegs,  cotton  seed, 
peanuts,  or  nuts  of  any  kind,  squash.  If  necessary  tell 
the  children  to  remove  the  outer  coat.  Prick  with  a  pin. 
Oil  will  at  once  ooze  out. 

Tell  me  at  what  time  of  the  year  you  are  most  inclined  to 
eat  fats.  What  people  eat  fat  more  eagerly  than  we  do  ? 
Why?  What  then  is  the  use  of  fat  food  to  us?  Are 
the  other  foods,  too,  available  as  fuels  ?  (Even  the  proteids 
may  be  consumed  for  fuel.)  What  advantage,  then,  to  eat 
fats  when  food  fuel  is  needed  ?  (To  save  the  proteids  for 
their  more  important  and  untransferable  work  —  of  building 
up  the  tissues.) 

INORGANIC  FOOD  MATERIALS 

Salt.  —  Of  these  the  commonest  is  common  salt;  but 
the  lime  salts,  iron,  magnesia,  potash,  and  phosphorous, 
are  also  necessary.  They  are,  however,  contained  in  suf- 
ficient quantities  in  various  common  articles  of  diet.  Let- 
tuce, for  example,  furnishes  plenty  of  potash.  Salt, 
however,  is  added  from  without.  So  necessary  is  it  to 
man  that  when  the  need  for  revenue  was  most  urgent  in 


108  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

India,  France,  and  other  countries,  then  recourse  was 
always  had  to  the  "salt  tax,"  since  even  the  poorest 
would  buy  salt  regardless  of  the  increase  in  price.  The 
salt  licks  of  the  prairie  or  deserts  are  greatest  attractions 
of  these  regions  to  all  the  animals  near. 

About  half  a  pound  of  salt  is  the  normal  quantity  in  an 
adult's  body.  Since  this  constantly  wastes  away  in  tears, 
and  in  sweat,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  constantly 
replenished.  Nevertheless,  the  amount  of  salt  used  is  often 
excessive  and  is  the  result  of  a  dulled  sense  of  taste  and 
of  habit,  rather  than  necessity. 

Such  expressions  as  "  the  salt  of  life,"  "  Attic  salt,"  "  to 
taste  a  man's  salt,"  and  "he  flavors  his  food  with  salt"  (mean- 
ing he  is  wealthy)  show  the  esteem  in  which  salt  has  been 
held  from  the  earliest  times.  It  is  a  symbol  of  wisdom  and 
wit  and  hospitality,  and  in  the  African  gold  coast  region,  of 
wealth.  There  formerly  a  slave  or  two  could  be  purchased 
for  a  handful  of  salt.  The  best  table  salt  is  most  cheaply 
made  by  evaporating  water  from  salt  springs.  This  busi- 
ness is  carried  on  in  an  extensive  scale  in  New  York,  Mich- 
igan, Ohio,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia. 

It  is  also  produced  from  sea- water  and  mined  as  rock  salt. 

WATER 

Water,  constituting  as  it  does  about  eighty-seven  per  cent 
of  the  whole  bulk  of  the  body,  wasting  every  moment,  too, 
must  be  of  necessity  a  most  important  element  of  food. 

Says  Edward  Smith  in  "Foods":  — 

"  It  is  required  for  many  purposes  :  First,  to  soften  or  dis- 
solve solid  foods  so  as  to  facilitate  their  mastication  and 
digestion ;  second,  to  maintain  a  due  bulk  of  blood  and  the 
structures  of  the  body ;  third,  to  keep  substances  in  solution 
or  suspension,  whilst  moving  in  the  body ;  fourth,  to  supply 
elements  in  the  chemical  changes  of  the  body ;  fifth,  to 


FOODS  109 

enable  the  waste  materials  to  be  carried  away  from  the  body ; 
sixth,  to  discharge  superfluous  heat  by  transpiration  through 
the  skin,  and  by  emissions  though  other  outlets ;  and  sev- 
enth, to  supply  in  convenient  form  heat  to,  or  to  abstract 
heat  from,  the  body.  Some  of  these  functions  are  performed 
by  water  in  its  liquid  state,  and  others  in  a  state  of  vapor." 

Our  foods  contain  more  or  less  water.  "  In  general,"  says 
Atwater  [Gov.  Keport  "  Foods  "],  "  animal  foods  contain  the 
most  water  and  vegetable  foods  the  most  nutrients,  though 
potatoes  and  turnips  are  exceptions,  the  former  being  three- 
fourths  and  the  latter  nine-tenths  water.  Butter,  on  the 
other  hand,  though  one  of  the  animal  foods,  generally  has 
only  ten  or  more  per  cent  water.  The  milk  from  which  it  is 
made  is  not  far  from  seven-eighths  water.  Meats  have  more 
water  in  proportion  as  they  have  less  fats  ;  and  vice  versa,  the 
fatter  the  meat  the  less  the  amount  of  water  in  it.  The 
flesh  of  fish  is  in  general  more  watery  than  ordinary  meats. 
Flour  and  meal  have  but  little  water,  and  sugar  when  well 
dried  has  almost  none." 

The  best  and  most  agreeable  water  for  drinking  purposes 
is  moderately  soft  spring  water.  Where  this  cannot  be 
obtained,  soft  surface  water  may  be  used,  provided  that  it 
is  sand  filtered  before  it  reaches  the  consumer.  Unless 
this  is  known  to  be  very  perfectly  done,  it  is  safer  to  boil 
it  ten  minutes,  setting  it  away  in  a  refrigerator  in  clean 
glass  bottles.  Water  so  treated  is  cool  enough  to  be  agree- 
able to  the  taste,  not  cold  enough  to  chill  the  stomach, 
and  absolutely  free  from  disease  bacteria. 

The  worst  water  for  drinking  is  that  from  wells.  This 
water  source  is  so  commonly  used  in  the  country,  and  such 
a  prolific  cause  of  disease,  that  any  one  thinking  of  going  to 
a  new  resort,  even  for  a  limited  stay,  should  first  investigate 
the  water  supply. 

It  is  said  that  an  active   person  needs  three  quarts  of 


110  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

water  per  day.  A  great  deal  of  this  water  is  contained  in 
the  food,  of  course ;  but  it  is  certainly  true  that  most  of  us 
drink  too  little,  rather  than  too  much  water. 

It  should  be  taken  with  meals,  but,  of  course,  washing 
down  the  food  with  its  aid,  instead  of  solely  by  means  of 
the  muscles  of  the  gullet,  is  objectionable. 

OXYGEN 

Oxygen,  like  water,  is  essential  to  the  final  development 
of  food  into  energy  or  into  actual  tissue,  and  in  this  sense 
may  be  called  a  food.  Too  much  emphasis,  therefore,  can- 
not be  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  fresh  air  in  connection 
with  eating,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  a  text  from  which 
we  preach  in  almost  every  other  subject  in  domestic  science. 
As  Dr.  Edw.  Smith  says,  in  "Foods  "  :  - 

"The  necessity  for  oxygen  as  a  food  is  absolute  and 
unintermittent.  When  the  mixed  gases  of  the  atmosphere 
are  received  into  the  lungs,  a  portion  is  absorbed  by  the 
blood,  and  the  oxygen  combines  with  the  carbon,  nitrogen, 
and  hydrogen  of  foods,  and  in  all  the  vital  processes,  to 
form  compounds.  Some  of  these  compounds  remain  for  a 
time  in  the  body,  and  form  a  part  of  its  substance ;  but  a  far 
greater  proportion,  after  producing  heat,  leave  the  body  as 
water  and  carbonic  acid,  or  other  compounds,  and  are 
called  excreta.  The  body  is  a  great  oxidizing  apparatus,  by 
which  it  sustains  its  bulk,  produces  heat,  and  modifies  the 
composition  of  the  atmosphere.  When  it  casts  off  that 
which,  having  been  used  is  no  longer  useful  to  it,  it  not 
only  deteriorates  the  atmosphere,  but  renders  it  impure. 
It  is  not  too  general  an  expression  to  say  that  every  thought 
and  act  of  man,  as  well  as  every  action  within  his  body,  is 
accompanied  by  the  consumption  of  oxygen  and  deterio- 
ration of  surrounding  air." 


FOODS  111 

Method.  —  Since  the  study  of  water  has  been  outlined  in 
the  chapter  on  the  Laundry,  and  the  study  of  oxygen  in 
connection  with  that  on  the  Kitchen,  the  teacher  is  advised 
to  refer  to  these  chapters.  In  all  probability,  the  best 
method  to  be  pursued  with  the  study  of  the  inorganic 
constituents  of  food,  is  to  teach  them  in  reading  and 
language  lessons. 


DECEMBER 


FOODS   (CONTINUED)  : 
FOOD  VALUES,  DIETARIES,  FOOD  ECONOMY 

DRINKS  : 
TEA,  COFFEE,  COCOA 

ADVANCED  COUKSE : 
PBOTEIDS  AND  How  TO  COOK  THEM 

BY  L.  L.  W.  WILSON,  PH.D., 

Or  THE  PHILADELPHIA  NORMAL  SCHOOL 


CHAPTER  V 
FOODS   (Continued) 

THE  chart  on  p.  117  is  self-explanatory  except  for  the 
term  calories. 

A  calorie  in  this  table  is  the  unit  of  the  measure  of  energy 
developed  as  food  is  consumed  in  the  body.  It  is  the  amount 
of  heat  that  would  be  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
one  pound  of  water  four  degrees. 

In  one  pound  of  protein  and  also  of  carbohydrates  there 
are  1860  calories ;  in  a  pound  of  fat,  4220  calories.  That  is 
to  say  one  pound  of  lean  meat  is  equivalent  to  a  pound  of 
starch  or  of  sugar  in  its  capacity  for  giving  energy.  Less 
than  half  a  pound  of  fat  would  yield  the  same  amount  of 
energy. 

But  we  must  not  forget  in  this  connection  that  the  chief 
function  of  protein  is  that  of  a  tissue  builder,  while  the  fats 
and  starches  are  worthless  for  this  purpose  except  as  they 
save  the  protein  from  being  consumed  as  fuel. 

A  glance  at  the  chart  shows  that  the  best  tissue  builders, 
since  they  contain  relatively  large  quantities  of  protein, 
are  cheese,  beef,  beans,  mutton,  mackerel,  codfish,  oatmeal. 
Let  us  look  at  beef  in  detail.  It  contains  both  fuel  food 
(fat  in  this  case)  and  tissue  builder  (protein),  but  fat  is 
difficult  of  digestion  and  to  many  unpalatable.  It  would  be 
well  then  to  supplement  the  beef  with  some  other  food  in 
which  the  carbohydrates  (the  other  fuel  food)  are  in  excess. 
This  is  true  of  wheat  and  corn  bread,  of  oatmeal,  rice, 
potato,  and  sugar.  Of  these  the  most  palatable  additions  to 

115 


116  HANDBOOK   OF    DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

a  beef  diet  are  without  doubt  potato,  bread,  rice,  beans. 
The  same  statements  are  true  of  the  other  meats  and  fish 
mentioned,  and  of  cheese.  Moreover,  the  protein  of  cheese 
is  too  concentrated  for  exclusive  diet  of  any  but  hardy 
mountaineers. 

But  how  about  beans,  oatmeal  ?  The  food  stuffs  repre- 
sented are  various  enough  and  are  in  approximately  the 
right  proportions.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  oatmeal  and  milk 
is  the  main  article  of  food  in  Scotland ;  but  unless  properly 
cooked  (see  starches,  p.  64),  it  is  difficult  of  digestion,  and 
then  so  expanded  by  this  cooking  that  it  is  difficult  to 
swallow  enough  of  it. 

The  protein  in  the  case  of  beans  is  abundant,  but  at  the 
same  time  it  is  much  more  difficult  of  digestion  than  the 
protein  of  meats.  This  is  also  true  of  the  protein  of  oat- 
meal. As  in  oatmeal,  too,  long  cooking  is  needed  on 
account  of  the  starches. 

All  things  considered,  meat,  or  fish,  and  potatoes,  or  other 
starchy  vegetables,  make  the  basis  for  the  most  useful  and 
easily  digested  diet  for  man. 

Even  this  superficial  examination  of  the  chart  will  sug- 
gest to  most  of  us  that  our  diet  is  not,  perhaps,  just  what  it 
should  be.  Atwater  says  that  we  make  four  mistakes. 

(1)  We  purchase  needlessly  expensive  kinds  of  foods. 
We  use  the  costlier  kinds  of  meats,  fish,  and  vegetables 
when  the  less  expensive  ones  are  just  as  nutritious,  and  when 
rightly  cooked  just  as  palatable. 

.  (2)  Our  diet  is  apt  to  be  one-sided.  On  the  whole  we  eat 
too  much  of  the  fuel  foods,  and  too  little  of  the  tissue 
builders;  in  other  words,  too  much  oil,  starch,  and  sugar, 
in  proportion  to  meat  and  fish. 

(3)  We  use  excessive  quantities  of  food.     Much  food  is 
wasted  and  too  much  is  often  eaten. 

(4)  We  do  not  know  how  to  cook. 


FOODS 


117 


Nutrients. 


Non-nutrients. 


400    800   1200   1600   2000   2400   2800  3200   3600  40 


CHART  I.  —  COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 


118 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Valuable  as  Chart  I.  is,  it  must  be  supplemented  by 
figures.  Therefore  the  following  table,  also  compiled  from 
Atwater,  is  given  :  — 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS 


NUTRIENTS 

S 

H 

• 

63 

S     . 

I 

H 

£ 

3 

c 

1 

ci 

i      0> 

11 

n 

o 

Ph 

3  1= 

J~    cS 

s 

£ 

S3 

i 

Including  refuse  : 

Beef,  round    .     .     . 

7.8 

60.9 

31.3 

18.0 

12.3 

— 

1.0 

855 

Beef,  sirloin  .     .     . 

3.2 

40.9 

55.9 

12.9 

42.3 

— 

0.7 

2025 

Mutton,  leg    ... 

18.1 

50.6 

31.3 

15.0 

15.6 

— 

0.7 

935 

Pork     .          ... 

14.6 

43.0 

42.4 

13.6 

28.0 



0.8 

1435 

Salmon,  whole    .     . 

35.3 

40.6 

24.1 

14.3 

8.8 

— 

1.0 

636 

Mackerel,  whole 

44.6 

40.4 

15.0 

10.0 

4.3 

— 

0.7 

370 

Cod,  dressed  .     .     . 

29.9 

58.5 

11.6 

10.6 

0.2 

— 

0.8 

205 

Oysters  in  shell  .     . 

82.4 

15.3 

2.3 

1.1 

0.2 

0.6 

0.4 

40 

Excluding  refuse  : 

Beef,  round   .     .     . 

68.2 

31.8 

20.5 

10.1 

— 

1.2 

805 

Beef,  sirloin  .     .     . 

42.2 

57.8 

13.3 

43.7 

— 

0.8 

2090 

Mutton,  leg    ... 

61.8 

38.2 

18.3 

19.0 

— 

0.9 

1140 

Cod                .     .     . 

82.6 

17.4 

15.8 

0.4 



1.2 

310 

Oysters      .... 

87.2 

12.8 

6.3 

1.6 

4.0 

0.9 

260 

Milk      

87.0 

13.0 

3.6 

4.0 

4.7 

0.7 

325 

Butter            .     .     . 

10.5 

89.5 

1.0 

85.0 

0.5 

3.0 

3615 

Cheese  

30.2 

69.8 

28.3 

35.5 

1.8 

4.2 

2070 

Potatoes    .... 

78.9 

21.1 

2.1 

0.1 

17.9 

0.1 

375 

Beans        .... 

68.5 

31.5 

7.1 

0.7 

22.0 

1.7 

570 

Rice 

12.4 

87.6 

7.4 

0.4 

79.4 

0.4 

1630 

Corn  meal      .     .     . 

15.0 

85.0 

9.2 

3.8 

70.6 

1.4 

1645 

Oatmeal     .... 

7.8 

92.2 

14.7 

7.1 

68.4 

2.0 

1845 

Wheat  flour  .     .     . 

12.5 

87.5 

11.0 

1.1 

74.9 

0.5 

1645 

Wheat  bread  .     .     . 

32.3 

67.7 

8.8 

1.7 

56.3 

0.9 

1280 

Sugar    

2.0 

98.0 

— 

— 

97.8 

0.2 

1820 

FOODS  119 

AMERICAN  DIETARY  STANDARD  (Atwater) 


NUTRIENTS 

FOOD  VALUES 

Protein 

1 

ll 

°£ 

Man  or  a  woman 
with  little  physical  exercise     .... 
with  light  muscular  work 

0.20 
0.22 
0.28 
0.33 
0.39 

0.20 
0.22 
0.28 
0.33 
0.55 

0.66 
0.77 
0.99 
1.10 
1.43 

2450 
2800 
3520 
4060 
5700 

moderate  muscular  work                        . 

active  muscular  work     

Method.  —  Write  on  the  board  these  words :  Animal, 
Vegetable,  and  Mineral.  Let  the  children  make  as  long  a 
list  as  possible  of  such  foods  as  belong  exclusively  to  each 
class.  Let  them  make  another  list  of  articles  of  diet 
belonging  partly  to  one  and  partly  to  another.  See  that 
these  lists  are  fairly  complete  dietaries. 

Which  of  these  foods  are  necessaries,  appearing  every 
day  on  the  table  ?  Make  a  list  of  these  and  another  of  the 
luxuries. 

Write  on  the  board  the  words :  Summer  Diet,  Winter 
Diet.  Let  the  children  arrange  all  the  foods  given  in  one 
or  the  other  or  both  of  these  new  classes. 

Which  list  contains  the  most  animal  food?  The  most 
vegetable  ?  Check  off  all  that  contain  water. 

In  general,  to  which  class  of  foods  do  the  animal  foods 
belong  ?  The  vegetable  ?  What  vegetables  contain  a 
great  deal  of  protein  ?  What  is  the  function  of  protein  ? 
Of  the  starches  and  sugars  ?  Of  fats  and  oils  ?  How  much 
is  needed  of  each  daily  ?  How  much  of  each  do  you  eat  ? 


120  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Show  them  that  to  discover  this,  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
careful  lists  of  all  that  they  eat,  and  in  each  case  the 
quantity. 

For  example  :  —  The  ordinary  American  breakfast  con- 
sists of  :  Fruit,  Cereal,  Meat  or  Eggs,  Bread  and  Butter, 
Water,  Milk. 

The  following  weights  are,  of  course,  only  approximate  : 

The  common  fruits  (except  the  banana)  are  mainly  water, 
2  to  3  ounces.  Cereal,  2  oz.  With  it  is  eaten  4  oz.  milk 
and  ^  oz.  sugar.  Eggs,  3^  oz.  each.  Bread,  4  oz.  Butter, 
i-  oz.  Glass  of  milk,  6  oz.  Water,  8  oz. 

By  consulting  the  table,  the  percentage  of  the  proteids, 
carbohydrates,  etc.,  in  each  article  of  diet  —  Multiply  the 
quantity  eaten  by  this  percentage  for  the  amount  of  each 
food  constituent.  Put  down,  too,  the  calories  of  available 
energies.  For  example  :  — 

4  oz.  (milk)  x  .87    =  3.48    oz.  (water). 

4  oz.  (milk)  x  .036  =    .144  oz.  (protein). 

4  oz.  (milk)  x  .04    =    .16    oz.  (fat). 

4  oz.  (milk)  x  .047  =    .188  oz.  (carbohydrates). 

4  oz.  (milk)  x  .007  =    .028  oz.  (mineral  matter). 

1  Ib.  (32  oz.)  milk   =  325  calories. 

4  oz.  milk  =  Af*  C.  =  40|  C. 


After  computing  in  this  way  each  constituent  of  the 
meal,  add  the  several  amounts  and  calories  together.  Is 
this  a  properly  balanced  meal  ?  Why  ? 

Calculate  in  the  same  way  any  menu  given.  In  most 
cases  there  will  be  either  a  deficiency,  or  more  likely,  an 
excess,  of  carbohydrates.  In  this  case  the  important 
question  is,  How  shall  we  remedy  the  defect?  Shall  we 
add  protein,  or  subtract  carbohydrates?  Why  do  you 
think  so  ?  How  shall  we  do  this  ?  Consult  Chart  I. 


FOODS  121 

These  charts  and  tables  may  be  enlarged  and  made  per- 
manent. The  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  have  a  lantern  slide 
made  from  the  chart  or  table.  This  will  cost  about  fifty 
cents.  Then,  with  the  lantern,  project  this  on  a  piece  of 
Holland  linen,  chart  size,  hung  conveniently  on  the  wall. 
Dip  a  camel's-hair  brush  in  liquid  India  ink  and  rapidly 
trace  upon  the  linen  the  lines  projected  on  it.  The  size  of 
the  brush  depends  upon  the  desired  width  of  lines. 

Give  the  children  problems  such  as  these  to  be  worked 
out  in  the  manner  suggested  above :  — 

1.  What  is   the  food  value  of  %  Ib.  of  sirloin   steak? 
Will  this  make  a  meal  ?     Why  not  ?     With  what  must  it 
be  supplemented  (consult  chart)  ?     Why  ? 

2.  What  is  the   food  value  of  J  Ib.  pork?    Question 
as  in  1. 

3.  Of  mackerel? 

4.  Of  oysters  ? 

5.  Of  beans? 

6.  Of  rice? 

7.  Of  bread? 

8.  How  much  milk  must  be  taken  to  give  nourishment 
enough  for  one  day,  to  a  man  with   moderate   muscular 
work  ? 


122 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


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FOODS 


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FOODS  125 

Protein .       Fats  .      Carbohydrates .    Fuel  value. 


5. 

111 

Weights  of  nutrients  and  calories  of  energy 
in  25  cents'  worth 

bs. 
Cal. 

Cts. 

'  '  Lbs.                             ?  Lbs.                           5  L 

2)00  Cal.                       6000  Cal.                    10000 

Beef,  sirloin  

5.0 

i                   1                   1 

1.00 

v$-T  ' 

Beef,  neck 

0.0 

J-L 

Mutton,  leg 

2.0 

1.14 

!>!__  

Ham,  smoked    _, 

C.O 

T  " 

Salt  pork,  very  fat 
Codfish,  fresh 

2.0 
S.O 

3.13 

ji  

Codfish,  salt 
Mackerel,  salt 
Oysters,  35  cents  quart 
Eggs,  25  cents  dozen 

7.0 
2.0 
^.0 
4.! 

3.57 
1.43 

m-  
i 

Cheese,  whole  milk 
Cheese,  skim  milk 
Butter  
Sugar  

5.0 
8.0 
0.0 
5.0 

5.00 

1     •     

Wheat  flour        _ 

3.0 

•      •• 

2. 

10.00 

-ii                 {    smmm 

=====  

Beans                              _     _ 
Potatoes 

5.0 
1. 

5.00 
20.00 

-n  i 

Standard  for  daily  diet  f  OT  ) 
man  at  moderate  work.  ...    ) 

German* 
American'' 

"*    i      ""*!  — 

*  Voit 

•}•  Atwater. 

CHART  II.  —  PECUNIARY  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD  :  AMOUNTS  OF  ACTUALLY 
NUTRITIVE  INGREDIENTS  OBTAINED  IN  DIFFERENT  FOOD  MATERIALS 
FOR  TWENTY-FIVE  CENTS 


126  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

A  glance  at  the  chart  shows  at  once  that  the  most 
nutriment  for  the  same  price  is  furnished  by  wheat  and  corn. 
Next  come  oatmeal,  potatoes,  beans,  rice,  cheese,  pork.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  potatoes,  rice,  and  par- 
ticularly pork,  contain  very  little  protein,  and  that  one  ought 
to  be  willing  to  pay  more  for  animal  foods  since  they  are 
not  only  more  palatable,  but  their  protein  is  more  digestible. 
Nevertheless,  the  prejudice  of  people,  particularly  in  Amer- 
ica, against  the  less  expensive  food  is  deplorable.  Atwater 
tells  the  story  of  a  butcher  in  the  Boston  markets  who  tried 
to  persuade  a  poor  seamstress  that  other  parts  of  the  meat 
were  just  as  nutritious  —  and  so  they  are  —  as  the  expensive 
tenderloin  steak  that  she  insisted  upon  having.  She  would 
not  believe  him  and  finally  became  quite  angry  at  him  for 
what  she  seemed  to  feel  was  almost  a  reflection  on  her 
character.  "  My  wealthy  customers  take  our  cheaper  cuts," 
he  said,  "but  I  have  got  through  trying  to  sell  these 
economical  meats  to  that  woman  and  others  of  her  class." 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  many  intelligent  communi- 
ties without  the  aid  of  science,  by  sheer  instinct  apparently, 
have  solved  the  problem  of  really  economical  food.  The 
Scotchmen  have  attained  both  physical  and  mental  vigor  on 
oatmeal,  herring,  and  potatoes,  a  diet  both  economical  and 
nutritious.  And  who  will  say  that  the  high  thinking  of  the 
golden  age  of  New  England  had  not  an  origin  in  the  plain 
living,  represented  by  their  typical  food,  bread  and  milk, 
codfish  and  potatoes,  pork  and  beans. 

The  following  paragraphs  are  from  "  Food  and  Diet," 
Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  1894,  by 
W.  0.  Atwater,  Ph.D.,  one  of  his  several  publications  that 
ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher,  or  family  head : 

"One  of  the  ways  in  which  the  worst  economy  is  prac- 
tised is  in  the  buying  of  high-priced  foods.  For  this  error, 
prejudice,  the  palate,  and  poor  cooking  are  mainly  respon- 


FOODS  127 

sible.  There  is  a  prevalent  but  unfounded  idea  that  costly 
foods,  such  as  the  tenderest  meats,  the  finest  fish,  the 
highest-priced  butter,  the  choicest  flour,  and  the  most 
delicate  vegetables  possess  some  peculiar  virtue  which  is 
lacking  in  less  expensive  materials.  Many  people  who 
have  small  incomes  and  really  wish  to  economize,  think 
it  beneath  them  to  use  the  cheaper  meats  and  inexpensive, 
but  substantial  groceries.  Many,  too,  labor  under  the  false 
impression  that  the  costly  food  materials  are  somehow 
essential  and  economical.  The  maxim  that  '  the  best  is  the 
cheapest,'  does  not  apply  to  food.  The  '  best '  food,  in  the 
sense  of  that  which  is  finest  in  appearance  and  flavor  and 
is  sold  at  the  highest  price,  is  rarely  the  most  economical 
for  people  in  good  health.  The  food  that  is  best  fitted  to 
the  real  wants  of  the  user  may  be  of  the  very  kind  which 
supplies  the  most  nutriment  at  the  lowest  cost. 

" .  .  .  What  is  here  urged  is  that  the  facts  are  not  under- 
stood, and  that  the  ignorance  results  in  great  waste  of  hard- 
earned  money.  If  a  man  has  an  income  of  $5000  a  year, 
he  can  afford  a  tenderloin  steak,  oysters  at  fifty  cents  a 
quart,  and  a  young  chicken,  and  the  early  strawberries  at 
the  high  prices  that  prevail  when  they  first  come  into  the 
market.  He  can  likewise,  if  he  wishes,  pay  $100  for 
an  overcoat,  and  his  wife  may  indulge  in  twenty-dollar 
bonnets.  But  if  his  yearly  income  is  only  $1000,  these 
luxuries  will  be  beyond  his  means,  and  if  he  has  but  $500 
a  year  for  the  support  of  his  family,  such  extravagance 
would  be  unpardonable.  So  far  as  the  overcoat  and  bonnet 
are  concerned,  every  one  would  agree  to  this  statement ;  but 
when  it  comes  to  a  matter  of  food  economy,  a  great  many 
people  of  small  incomes  would  object  to  the  principle  most 
decidedly. 

The  larger  part  of  the  price  of  costlier  foods  is  paid  for 
appearance,  flavor,  or  rarity.  The  sirloin  of  beef  is  no  more 


128  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

digestible  or  nutritious  than  round  or  rib,  although  it  is 
more  tender,  and  to  cook  it  so  as  to  get  the  finest  flavor 
is  an  easier  matter.  Saddle  Rock  oysters,  fresh  from  the 
shell,  at  50  cents  a  quart,  are  worth  no  more  for  nutriment 
than  those  that  are  sold  in  the  same  market  at  half  the 
price ;  and  a  quart  of  milk  contains  as  much  nutriment  and 
in  fully  as  digestible  form  as  either.  Salmon  has  no  higher 
food  value  in  the  first  of  the  season  at  $1  than  later  at  25 
cents  a  pound,  and  at  either  time  it  ranks  as  food,  just 
about  on  a  level  with  mackerel,  which  is  often  sold  at  10 
cents  per  pound,  or  less.  The  expensive  food  materials  are 
like  the  expensive  articles  of  adornment.  They  are  very 
nice  if  one  can  afford  them,  but  they  are  not  economical. 
The  plain,  substantial,  standard  food  materials,  like  the 
cheaper  meats  and  fish,  milk,  flour,  corn  meal,  oatmeal, 
beans,  and  potatoes,  are  as  digestible  and  nutritious,  and 
as  well  fitted  for  the  nourishment  of  people  in  good  health 
as  any  of  the  costlier  materials  the  markets  afford. 

A  favorite  dish  in  France  is  a  soup  or  stew  with  a 
large  quantity  of  peas,  beans,  or  lentils.  What  nutrients 
does  it  contain  ?  In  about  what  proportions  ?  Would  it 
do  for  a  single  dish  ?  Why  ?  Is  it  economical  ?  Why  ? 

Ask  the  same  question  about  the  national  dish  of  Italy, 
viz.,  wheat,  macaroni,  and  polenta  (corn  meal)  cooked 
with  cheese  made  from  skim  milk ;  about  the  Indian  and 
Chinese  food  of  rice  combined  with  peas  and  beans ;  about 
the  miso  the  Japanese  composed  of  rice  and  fermented 
barley,  with  beans  or  peas;  about  the  Creole  dish  of  rice 
and  red  beans ;  and  corn  meal,  bacon,  and  molasses  of  our 
Southern  negroes. 

Method.  —  Much  the  same  method  may  be  pursued  in  the 
study  of  this  section  as  has  been  already  suggested  for  the 
previous  section. 

Use  first  Chart  II,  asking  such  questions  as  will  lead  them 


DRINKS  129 


to  see  at  a  glance  the  relative  economy  of  the  different 
foods.  Then  give  them  the  table  and  let  them  work  out 
problems  such  as  these  :  — 

(1)  From  the  articles  given  in  this  table,  select  a  bill 
of  fare  for  three  meals.     Compute  the  cost  and  the  food 
value  of  each.     If  the  dietary  first  proposed  is  one-sided, 
make  it  right,  and  again  compute  the  cost. 

(2)  Substitute    equally    nutritious    but    cheaper    foods. 
Again  compute  the  cost.     Is  the  first  bill  of  fare  worth 
the  additional  cost  ? 

(3)  Suppose  that  a  man  was  compelled  to  eat  pork  and 
beans  for  half  his  entire  diet,  how  many  pounds  of  beans 
must  he  eat  for  the  requisite  amount  of  proteid  ?     How 
much  carbohydrate  does  this  quantity  yield  ?     How  much 
pork  must  be  added  to  make  the  food  value  nearly  perfect  ? 


DRINKS 

TEA 

Food  Value. — Tea  is  of  variable  compositions.  Its  most 
important  constituent  is  theine,  which  makes  from  one  to 
four  per  cent.  With  this  is  combined  tannin  (sixteen  to 
twenty-seven  per  cent).  Its  other  constituents  are  caseine, 
gum,  sugar,  starch,  oil,  vegetable  fibre,  and  an  aromatic  oil, 
to  which  its  flavor  is  due.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  pot 
of  tea  as  ordinarily  made  does  not  contain  more  than  a 
grain  of  nitrogen,  so  that  as  a  food  it  has  practically  no 
value.  But  properly  made,  and  drunk  in  small  quantities, 
it  is  a  harmless  stimulant,  and,  therefore,  an  aid  to  diges- 
tion. This  does  not  mean  that  it  is  a  suitable  drink  for  the 
young.  It  is,  in  fact,  very  unsuitable,  like  every  other 
stimulant,  because  of  its  effect  on  the  development  of  the 
nervous  system.  It  is  useful  to  elderly  people,  and  those 


130  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

with  a  delicate  stomach  incapable  of  digesting  much  food, 
for  it  prevents  a  waste  of  tissue,  thus  enabling  the  drinker 
to  get  along  with  less  food.  But  it  must  be  remembered 
that  it  does  not  take  the  place  of  food,  and  that,  used  in 
excess,  it  is  undoubtedly  a  poison. 

Physiological  Effects. — Tea  markedly  increases  respira- 
tion. For  this  reason  it  aids  in  the  assimilation  of  food 
by  supplying  to  the  body  a  greater  quantity  of  oxygen.  As 
a  nerve  stimulant  it  must  excite  somewhat  the  digestive 
juices,  but  on  the  whole  its  chief  value  is  its  aid  to  assimila- 
tion. For  this  reason  it  should  be  drunk  after  eating  rather 
than  before,  or  during  a  hearty  meal. 

Its  action  on  the  skin  is  very  noticeable,  causing  per- 
spiration. For  this  reason  it  is  very  cooling.  In  popular 
parlance  it  is  "the  cup  that  cheers,"  and  undoubtedly  it  has 
a  refreshing  influence  on  the  mind.  As  the  Chinese  say, 
"  It  tends  to  clear  away  impurities,  to  drive  off  drowsiness, 
and  to  remove  or  prevent  headache." 

Customs  of  Drinking.  —  Tea  is  drunk  clear  in  China  and 
Japan,  and  with  a  few  drops  of  lemon  in  Russia  In  Tar- 
tary  and  on  the  coast  of  South  America,  the  used  leaves  are 
passed  around  and  eaten  with  relish.  These  contain  about 
twenty  per  cent  of  nitrogenous  matter,  so  that  the  custom 
can  certainly  be  defended  on  the  score  of  economy. 

Natural  History. — Tea  is  the  dried  leaves  of  a  plant 
belonging  to  the  same  family  as  our  camellia.  It  is  now 
a  shrub,  but  a  wild  variety,  supposed  by  some  to  represent 
the  original  stock,  attains  the  size  of  a  large  tree.  It  is 
one  of  the  hardiest  of  subtropical  plants,  and  will  grow 
over  a  wide  area  of  country.  The  conditions  best  suited  to 
it  are  the  slopes  of  mountains  in  tropical  or  subtropical 
countries.  These  give  it  the  warm,  moist,  equable  climate 
with  good  root  drainage  under  which  it  thrives  best. 

It  is  grown  from  seed.     As  soon  as  the  plants  are  four  or 


DRINKS  131 


five  inches  high  they  are  transplanted  to  the  plantation.  The 
rows  of  plants  are  five  feet  apart,  so  that  the  pickers  can  walk 
easily  between  them.  If  the  situation  is  exposed,  the  plant 
is  kept  low,  that  it  may  not  be  injured  by  the  storm  and 
wind,  but  in  sheltered  positions  it  is  allowed  to  reach  a 
height  of  six  feet  or  more.  When  the  slope  of  the  ground 
does  not  shelter  it,  it  is  usual  to  plant  near  by  quick-growing 
trees  to  break  the  force  of  the  wind. 

For  three  years  it  is  allowed  to  grow  undisturbed  except 
for  needed  pruning,  and  even  then  care  is  taken  not  to  strip 
it,  for  the  leaves  are  the  main  organs  of  this  as  well  as 
other  plants. 

Preparation  for  the  Market.  —  The  leaves  are  picked  three 
times  a  year.  Those  gathered  first,  in  April,  are  considered 
the  choicest,  for  they  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  juice  in 
relation  to  the  solid,  and  are  moreover  much  more  pliable. 
A  large  portion  of  this  crop  is  kept  in  its  habitat  for  the 
use  of  the  wealthy ;  but  some  of  it  finds  its  way  in  small 
quantities  on  the  backs  of  horses  or  caravans  to  Russia,  and 
of  late  years  a  little  of  it  is  sold  in  the  markets  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States. 

Women  and  children  are  employed  in  gathering  the 
leaves.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  fresh  leaves  have 
neither  odor  nor  flavor.  These  leaves  are  then  dried  in  the 
sun  and  trodden  out  by  barefoot  men,  in  order  to  break 
the  fibres  and  dry  them  better.  Then  they  are  heaped  up 
and  heated  for  some  hours,  or  until  they  are  reddish  brown 
in  color.  They  are  then  rolled  up  by  hand.  This  is  to 
start  up  fermentation,  which,  however,  is  soon  checked 
by  exposing  them  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  or  else  baking 
them  over  a  charcoal  fire.  In  all  this  heating  they  are 
carefully  stirred  to  prevent  scorching. 

In  this  state  they  are  bought  by  the  merchants,  who 
in  turn  sort  them  so  that  leaves  of  the  same  size  and  age 


132  HANDBOOK   OF    DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

shall  be  together.  Steins  and  damaged  leaves  are  removed. 
Then  they  are  thoroughly  dried  over  a  slow  fire  and  are 
shipped  to  Europe  and  America. 

It  is  said  that  the  Chinese  will  not  drink  tea  until  it 
is  a  year  old,  but  since  its  flavor  depends  on  a  volatile  oil, 
it  is  evident  that  new  tea  must  be  better  than  old.  More- 
over, the  longer  that  the  tea  is  packed  in  the  close  hold 
of  a  vessel,  the  more  likely  it  will  be  to  ferment.  There- 
fore, "exceptionally  fast  vessels  have  been  built  for  the 
tea  trade  in  England,  and  there  is  always  a  great  strife 
to  be  the  first  ship  to  bring  the  new  cargo  in. 

Kinds  of  Tea.  —  Tea  may  be  roughly  divided  into  green, 
black,  and  scented. 

The  process  of  preparing  black  tea  has  been  already 
given  in  detail.  Green  tea  is  not  dried  in  the  sun,  but  with 
artificial  heat.  It  is  because  of  this  rapid  drying  that  it 
retains  its  natural  green  color. 

Scented  tea  is  always  of  mediocre  quality.  Its  odor  is 
due  to  its  being  mixed  with  the  aromatic  leaves  of  other 
plants. 

History.  —  The  word  tea  is  of  Chinese  origin.  This 
due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  first  cultivated  in  China.  Whei 
it  was  first  imported  into  England  (1665)  it  was  sold  at  tht 
rate  of  $15  a  pound.  Excellent  quality  can  now  be  bought 
for  fifty  cents  a  pound. 

Its  cultivation  has  spread  into  India,  Ceylon,  Japai 
Korea.  Its  cultivation  in  other  countries  has  not 
particularly  successful,  for  cheap  labor  is  as  essential 
successful  tea-growing,  as  favorable  climate,  soil,  am 
situation.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  great  part  of  il 
manufacture  is  carried  on  by  hand. 

Substitutes  for  Tea.  —  Substitutes  for  tea  have  been  ust 
in   almost   every  country.     Appalachian  tea,  New  Jersey 
tea,  Mountain  tea,  Labrador  tea,  Oswego,  are  the  names 


DKINKS  133 

some  of  the  teas  prepared  from  native  plants,  some  of  them 
used  by  the  Indians,  and  many  of  them,  doubtless,  by  the 
colonists  during  the  memorable  times  of  the  tea  tax.  Mate 
tea,  made  from  the  leaves  of  the  Brazilian  holly,  is  much 
used  in  South  American  countries.  It  is  prepared  similarly 
to  Chinese  tea,  and  is  cooked  in  much  the  same  way.  The 
natives  flavor  it  with  lemon  and  burnt  sugar,  and  suck  it 
through  a  straw.  It  is  a  slight  narcotic,  resembling  coffee 
rather  than  tea  leaves.  It  is  very  cheap,  and  is  therefore 
drunk  in  large  quantities. 

Preparation  for  the  Table.  —  In  preparing  tea  for  the  table, 
the  aim  should  be  to  extract  all  the  aroma  and  the  theine 
with  the  least  possible  admixture  of  tannin.  This  is 
accomplished  by  pouring  over  the  tea  freshly  boiled  water, 
letting  it  infuse  for  at  least  five  minutes.  Longer  infusion 
depends  upon  the  taste  of  the  drinker  for  tannin. 

The  Chinese  directions  with  regard  to  water  and  fire 
were  as  follows  :  — 

"  Take  the  water  from  a  running  stream ;  that  from  hill 
springs  is  best,  river  water  is  the  next,  and  well  water  is 
^he  worst.  The  fire  must  be  lively  and  clear,  but  the  water 
must  not  be  boiled  too  hastily.  At  first  it  begins  to 
sparkle  like  crabs'  eyes,  then  somewhat  like  fishes'  eyes, 
and,  lastly,  it  boils  up  like  pearls  innumerable,  springing 
and  waving  about." 

Method.  —  Distribute  to  each  student  a  small  quantity  of 
tea.  Ask  them  what  it  is  and  why  they  think  so.  Let 
each  pour  boiling  water  on  her  tea  and  watch  the  result. 
What  is  tea,  then?  Give  them  some  account  of  the  tea 
plant,  its  culture  and  manufacture. 

Let  them  taste  the  water  in  which  the  leaves  have  been 
standing.  Let  them  boil  it  for  five  or  ten  minutes  and 
taste  again.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  taste  ?  To 
what  is  the  flavor  due  in  the  first  instance  ?  In  the 


134  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

second  ?  For  what  other  purpose  is  tannin  used  ?  (Tanning 
leather.)  How  then,  should  tea  be  made  ? 

What  is  its  food  value  ? 

What  is  its  effect  on  the  nervous  system?  By  whom, 
then,  should  it  not  be  drunk  ?  What  are  its  advantages  ? 

Exhibit  samples  of  various  teas, — letting  the  pupils 
arrange  these  according  to  their  commercial  value. 

Recipes  for  Pupils 

A  Cup  of  Tea.  —  Pour  boiling  water  in  the  teapot ;  when 
the  pot  has  become  thoroughly  heated,  empty  it.  Put  one 
teaspoon  of  tea  into  the  hot  pot,  and  pour  one  cup  of 
freshly  boiled  water  on  it.  Let  it  steep  five  minutes  and 
then  serve.  If  too  strong,  dilute  with  boiling  water.  If 
the  tea  has  to  stand,  pour  off  the  tea  from  the  leaves. 
Serve  plain  with  a  sweet  cake,  as  do  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese ;  or  with  cut  sugar  and  slices  of  lemon,  Russian 
fashion ;  or  in  the  ordinary  way,  with  cream  and  sugar. 

A  Cup  of  Tea  (second  method).  — Pour  a  cup  of  cold  water 
over  a  heaping  teaspoonful  of  tea.  Let  it  stand  all  day  in 
the  refrigerator.  Pour  off  the  liquid,  heat,  and  serve  as 
desired. 

Tea  made  in  this  way  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  any 
other  for  iced  tea. 

COFFEE 

Food  Value.  —  Eoasted  coffee  contains  about  one  per  cent 
of  caffeine  (a  principle  analogous  to  theine) ;  about  thirteen 
per  cent  of  peculiar  aromatic  compounds,  developed  in  the 
roasting  from  the  oils  and  fats  of  the  green  berry ;  about 
six  or  seven  per  cent  of  sugar  (caramel).  Caffeic  acid,  in 
its  physiological  effect  similar  to  tannin,  is  present  in  small 
quantities  (three  to  five  per  cent).  It  contains,  also,  not  far 
from  thirteen  per  cent  of  proteids,  a  small  quantity  of  min- 


DRINKS  135 


eral  matter,  and  about  sixty-nine  per  cent  of  burnt  cellulose. 
The  berry  itself,  then,  is  more  nutritious  than  the  leaves  of 
the  tea ;  but  the  infusion  which  is  usually  drunk  is  a  stimu- 
lant, rather  than  a  food. 

Natural  History.  —  Coffee  is  the  seed  of  a  berry  of  a  tree 
which,  wild,  attains  a  height  of  twenty  to  thirty  feet.  In 
cultivation,  however,  it  ranges  from  three  to  six  feet,  thus 
making  it  possible  to  gather  the  abundant  fruit  with  ease. 

It  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  Peruvian  bark  from 
which  quinine  is  made. 

It  is  an  evergreen,  with  numerous  beautiful  jessamine- 
like  white  flowers.  These  bloom  for  eight  months  of  the 
year,  producing  a  succession  of  crops  of  fruit. 

Coffee,  like  tea,  needs  a  warm,  moist  climate,  rich  soil,  and 
protection  from  winds  and  storms.  The  original  home  of 
Mocha  coffee  has  the  finest  climate  in  the  world  for  coffee 
culture.  All  the  year  round  a  thick  mist  ascends  from  the 
coast  to  the  slopes  on  which  the  coffee  is  growing.  At 
the  time  of  the  greatest  heat,  midday,  this  mist  protects  the 
plants  from  it;  and  at  night  the  hot  air  ascending  from 
the  plains  keeps  the  temperature  marvellously  equable.  It 
is  a  natural,  self-regulating  hothouse. 

Preparation  for  Market.  —  During  the  height  of  the  season, 
each  coolie  is  expected  to  bring  a  bushel  of  berries  to  the 
pulping  mill  at  midday  and  again  in  the  evening.  This 
fruit  resembles  in  color  and  texture  a  small  cherry,  but 
instead  of  one  stone  it  contains  two  seeds.  These  seeds  are 
enveloped  in  a  thick  leathery  skin  called  parchment.  After 
the  berries  have  been  pulped  by  machinery  they  are  cured 
by  exposing  them  to  the  sun  for  six  or  eight  days.  Great 
care  is  needed,  because  they  are  now  extremely  sensitive  to 
rain  or  dew.  When  thoroughly  dried,  they  are  sent  to  the 
coffee  works  in  bushel  bags.  Here  they  are  placed  in  circular 
troughs  and  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  heavy  rollers,  which 


136  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

break  the  parchment  but  do  not  crush  the  berry.  This  outer 
covering  is  fanned  away  and  the  berries  sized.  This  is 
necessary  on  account  of  the  roasting.  A  small  bean  would 
be  burned  to  charcoal  before  a  larger  one  was  thoroughly 
roasted.  The  smallest  berries,  no  matter  where  grown, 
receive  the  trade  name  of  Mocha  and  command  the  high- 
est price.  Nineteen-twentieths  of  the  Mochas  and  Javas  of 
commerce  come  from  Brazil,  and  it  is  many  years  since  real 
Mocha  has  reached  Europe  or  the  United  States. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  instead  of  two  flat  seeds,  the 
berry  will  have  one  round  one.  These  are  carefully  sorted 
out  and  sold  in  market  under  the  name  of  male  berry  or  pea 
berry  coffee.  It  is  supposed  to  have  a  finer  flavor  than  the 
common  varieties,  and  for  that  reason  commands  a  higher 
price. 

History.  —  The  legend  of  its  discovery  is  quite  interesting. 
It  is  said  that  a  poor  Arabian  dervish  noticed  evening  after 
evening  that  his  goats  returned  home  in  remarkably  happy 
humor.  He  watched  them  closely  to  find  out  if  he  could 
the  cause  of  their  joy  fulness,  and  discovered  that  they  ate 
eagerly  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  a  beautiful  unknown  tree. 
He  tried  the  effects  of  these  on  himself.  He  was  so  exhila- 
rated that  his  neighbors  accused  him  of  drinking  wine,  for- 
bidden to  them ;  but  when  he  told  them  of  his  discovery, 
they  agreed  with  him  at  once  that  it  was  a  plant  sent  by 
Allah  as  a  substitute  for  the  forbidden  wine. 

The  Mahometans  used  it  to  keep  themselves  from  going  to 
sleep  during  their  long  hours  of  prayer.  For  this  reason  its 
use  was  opposed  by  many  of  the  priests,  who  tried  in  vain  to 
have  it  brought  under  the  prohibition  of  the  Koran  which 
was  directed  against  intoxicating  drinks. 

Physiological  Effects.  —  Coffee,  unlike  tea,  decreases  the 
action  of  the  skin,  and  is  not,  therefore,  accompanied  by  the 
free  perspiration  so  characteristic  of  tea.  It  increases  res- 


DRINKS  137 

piration,  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  excites  the  mucous 
membranes.  This  in  addition  to  its  slightly  greater  food 
value  makes  it  better  fitted  for  the  feeble  than  tea.  Because 
the  skin  is  most  active  and  the  heart  most  feeble  in  the 
morning,  it  is  preeminently  a  breakfast  drink.  It  is  not 
so  good  after  dinner,  and  if  taken  then  should  be  drunk 
soon  after  the  meal. 

Adulterations. — Unground  coffee  is  not  easily  adulter- 
ated; but  ground  coffee  is  very  frequently  mixed  with 
ground  chicory,  dandelion  or  carrot  roots,  or  ground  peas 
and  beans. 

To  detect  these  adulterations  put  a  few  grains  of  the 
suspected  coffee  on  the  surface  of  water  in  a  glass  tumbler. 
If  chicory  is  present,  it  will  be  surrounded  by  a  yellow 
brown  cloud  which  will  soon  color  the  whole  tumbler  of 
water. 

Caramel  colors  the  water  much  more  deeply,  and  dande- 
lion root  or  rasped  bread  less  deeply.  Beans  and  peas,  on 
the  contrary,  color  the  water  much  less  deeply  than  pure 
coffee  even,  so  that  the  color  scale  increases  in  intensity  in 
the  following  order :  Peas  or  beans,  rasped  bread  or  dande- 
lion, coffee,  chicory,  caramel.  Dandelion  root  may  be 
detected  by  tasting  it,  and  bread,  of  course,  will  soften  in 
the  mouth. 

Pure  coffee  will  not  color  cold  water  in  less  than  fifteen 
minutes. 

Preparation  for  the  Table.  —  The  most  economical  way  to 
buy  coffee  is  raw.  It  must  be  kept  dry,  but  it  improves 
with  age. 

To  roast  it,  use  quick  heat.  This  develops  the  flavor 
and  makes  it  brittle.  It  may  be  ground  in  a  coffee-mill  or 
pounded  in  a  mortar  to  the  required  fineness. 

In  cooking  it  the  point  is  to  make  an  infusion  which  will 
contain  the  essential  oils  and  the  caffeine.  This  may  be 


138  HANDBOOK   OF- DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

accomplished  by  letting  it  stand  for  some  hours  in  cold 
water,  bringing  it  to  a  boil  just  before  using  it.  Although 
this  is  the  most  economical  way,  boiling  it  and  filtering  it 
are  the  more  usual  methods. 

Method. — Procure  from  any  grocer  samples  of  the  dif- 
ferent coffees  raw,  roasted,  and  ground.  Coffee  in  the 
"parchment"  and  even  in  the  pulp  may  sometimes  be 
procured  from  wholesale  grocers  who  keep  them  as  curi- 
osities and  are  willing  to  loan  or  give  them  away.  Pictures 
of  the  tree  and  of  the  various  stages  of  manufacture  are 
easily  found,  and  with  small  classes  add  to  the  interest  of 
the  lesson. 

With  this  material  develop  so  much  of  the  natural 
history,  manufacture,  and  history  of  coffee  as  you  deem 
expedient. 

Teach  its  physiological  effects. 

Ask  them  to  find  out  the  market  price  per  pound  of 
Mocha,  Java,  Mexican,  Maracaibo,  Bogota,  Jamaica,  Rio 
and  other  common  commercial  varieties.  Is  it  costly  enough 
to  warrant  adulteration  ? 

Let  them  test  pure  coffee  as  suggested  above.  Give  them 
experience  in  testing  the  various  adulterants.  This  is  most 
safely  done  by  giving  them  coffee  that  you  have  yourself 
adulterated.  Here  again  the  friendly  wholesale  grocer  will 
prove  invaluable. 

Let  them  make  coffee  in  the  various  ways  suggested. 
Calculate  the  cost  per  cup  in  each  case,  and  carefully  note 
the  difference  in  flavor. 

Recipes 

Infused  Coffee.  —  To  one  tablespoon  of  finely  ground  coffee, 
in  a  covered  earthenware  jar,  add  a  cup  of  cold  water.  Stir 
until  all  the  coffee  has  been  wet.  Cover  and  let  it  stand  for 


DEINKS  139 

several  hours.  Just  before  it  is  needed  for  use,  bring  it 
gradually  to  a  boil. 

Boiled  Coffee.  —  Have  the  coffee  ground  medium  fine. 
Einse  the  coffee-pot,  and  allow  one  heaping  tablespoon  of 
ground  coffee  to  each  cup  of  boiling  water.  Stir  well  to- 
gether and  pour  on  the  boiling  water;  let  the  coffee  boil 
two  minutes.  Set  the  pot  back  on  the  range,  where  it 
will  not  boil,  but  keep  below  the  boiling  point  for  ten 
minutes.  Pour  a  little  off  into  a  cup  and  then  back  again ; 
do  this  twice,  and  then  pour  one  tablespoon  of  cold  water 
down  the  spout  to  perfect  the  settling  and  clearing.  It  will 
then  be  ready  for  the  table  in  ten  minutes. 

Egg  is  not  essential  to  clear  coffee,  and  the  common 
practice  of  putting  in  dirty  egg-shells  cannot  be  too 
strongly  condemned. 

Filtered  Coffee.  —  Coffee  to  be  filtered  must  be  ground  very 
fine. 

Use  one  heaping  tablespoon  of  coffee  to  each  cup  of 
boiling  water.  Put  the  coffee  in  the  strainer  and  pour 
the  boiling  water  in  it ;  as  it  drips,  keep  adding  water  until 
the  desired  quantity  has  been  added.  This  coffee  must  not 
be  allowed  to  boil,  but  is  ready  for  the  table  as  soon  as 
filtered.  Have  the  coffee-pot  hot,  and  keep  it  hot  during 
filtration. 

The  simplest  form  of  a  strainer  to  hold  the  coffee  is  a 
flannel  or  cheese-cloth  sack  suspended  in  the  pot.  For 
the  individual  recipe  a  strainer  in  which  is  put  filter  paper 
will  answer  every  purpose. 

COCOA 

Food  Value.  —  The  cacao  bean  contains  fifty  per  cent  of 
fat,  thirteen  of  proteids,  seven  of  a  tannin-like  principle, 
four  of  starch,  and  about  one  per  cent  of  theobromine,  a 
principle  allied  to  theine  and  caffeine.  Chocolate  is  the 


140  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

whole  bean,  crushed  and  pulverized ;  but  about  half  of  its 
fat  is  extracted  in  the  manufacture  of  cocoa.  Therefore, 
cooked  in  milk,  as  it  usually  is,  cocoa  is  an  excellent  food, 
partaking  rather  of  the  nature  of  a  nutritious  soup  than  of 
a  drink. 

Natural  History. — The  cacao  bean  of  commerce  is  the 
seed  of  a  fruit  from  six  to  ten  inches  in  length,  and  contain- 
ing from  twenty  to  thirty  seeds.  The  color  varies  according 
to  the  degree  of  ripeness,  from  yellow  to  red,  and  at  last 
purple. 

The  tree  succeeds  best  in  a  moist  tropical  climate. 

Preparation  for  Market. — The  fruits  are  buried  in  damp 
earth  with  green  leaves  until  they  ferment.  So  much  heat 
is  developed  during  this  process  that  the  hand  cannot  be 
held  in  the  heap  even  for  an  instant.  Afterward  the  beans 
are  dried  in  the  sun,  or  else  roasted  by  machinery.  They 
are  then  crushed  and  broken  up  into  small  pieces,  the  cocoa- 
nibs  of  commerce.  From  these  is  made  the  chocolate  and 
cocoa  of  commerce,  the  latter  usually  being  freer  from  oil. 
The  oil  expressed  from  the  nibs  in  the  preparation  of 
chocolate  and  cocoa  is  utilized  in  the  making  of  cocoa 
butter,  used  in  some  places  for  cooking,  although  known 
to  us  on  the  fingers  of  the  masseur. 

History.  —  When  the  Spaniards  first  lived  in  Mexico,  they 
found  the  Mexicans  drinking  a  decoction  from  the  cacao  bean, 
called  by  them  chocolatl.  It  was  speedily  introduced  by 
them  into  Europe,  and  was  used  there  as  a  beverage  before 
the  introduction  of  either  tea  or  coffee.  In  Spain  it  was 
soon  regarded  as  almost  a  necessity,  but  has  never  been  so 
highly  esteemed  in  other  countries.  Nevertheless,  the  great 
botanist,  Linnaeus,  was  so  fond  of  it  that  he  named  the  tree 
from  which  it  grew  theobroma,  —  food  of  the  gods. 

Adulteration.  —  Cocoa  is  quite  commonly  adulterated  with 
starch.  This  may  be  easily  detected  under  the  microscope 


DRINKS  141 


by  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  peculiar  appearance  of 
starch  granules. 

Preparation  for  the  Table.  —  Unlike  tea,  or  even  coffee, 
cocoa  must  be  boiled  to  be  agreeable.  The  infusion  of 
cocoa  made  by  steeping  without  boiling  is  bitter  and  un- 
nutritious. 

Method.  —  From  wholesale  grocers  may  be  obtained  easily 
all  stages  in  the  manufacture  of  chocolate  except  the  tree 
and  fruit  itself.  Supply  this  lack  with  pictures.  With 
the  aid  of  these  develop  the  natural  history  of  the  plant 
and  its  preparation  for  market. 

Teach  its  food  value. 

Recipes 

A  Cup  of  Chocolate.  —  Break  into  small  pieces  one  bar 
of  Maillard's  chocolate.  Add  this  to  a  cup  of  cold  milk  in 
the  double  boiler.  Place  it  on  the  stove  and  stir  constantly 
with  a  wooden  spoon  until  the  chocolate  is  dissolved.  Let 
the  milk  boil  for  an  instant.  It  should  be  beaten  and 
served  with  whipped  cream. 

If  Baker's  chocolate  is  used,  shave  down  a  square  and 
dissolve  it  first  in  a  little  cold  water. 

A  Cup  of  Cocoa.  —  Dissolve  a  teaspoonful  of  cocoa  in  a 
little  cold  water.  To  this  add  a  cupful  of  boiling  milk 
and  let  it  boil  for  a  minute,  stirring  vigorously  all  the 
time. 


CHAPTER  VI 


ADVANCED   COURSE  :     THE  PROTEIDS,   AND   HOW 
TO   COOK   THEM 

For  Fish,  see  Chapter  VIII. 

Many  of  the  recipes  in  this  chapter  were  contributed  by  Mrs.  Ada 
Byron  Fink,  in  charge  of  the  lunchroom  of  the  Philadelphia  Normal 
School. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Works  recommended  in  Chapters  IV,  V,  VII,  and  VIII. 

Facts.  —  These  have  been  given  in  chapters  on  Foods  and 
on  Principles  of  Cooking. 

The  proteids  are  especially  abundant  in  eggs,  milk,  meats, 
fish,  and  the  leguminous  vegetables. 

In  addition  to  the  facts  to  be  found  in  the  chapters  on 
Poods,  the  following  may  be  useful  in  the  study  of  materials, 
preliminary  to  the  cooking  lessons. 


Germ  from  which  the  chick  grows 


Twisted  white  cords 
which  keep  the  yolk  steady 

142 


Shell 


pace  formed  between 
the  shell  aud  the  skin 


PEOTEIDS,   AND  HOW  TO  COOK  THEM  143 

Eggs.  —  This  drawing  will  make  all  the  parts  of  the  egg 
clear.  It  might  be  placed  on  the  board  when  the  students 
have  thoroughly  worked  out  the  various  facts  demonstrated 
by  it  with  the  eggs  themselves.  Their  average  composition 
is  as  follows :  — 

Per  Cent 

Refuse  (shell  and  skin) 13.7 

Water 63.1 

Protein 12.1 

Fat 10.2 

Mineral  matter 00.9 

Calories  (per  pound) .  655.0 

As  will  be  seen  from  an  inspection  of  Chart  II,  at  twenty- 
five  cents  a  dozen,  they  are  expensive  food. 

Milk  has  been  already  discussed  with  sufficient  thorough- 
ness for  the  purpose. 

Meats  are  from  the  cow,  calf,  sheep,  lamb,  pig,  birds. 

Beef.  —  The  total  amounts  of  nutrients,  the  calories,  and 
the  relative  economy  of  the  various  cuts  are  as  follows,  the 
analyses  having  been  made  from  cuts  just  as  they  are  pur- 
chased in  the  markets  (Atwater). 


144 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


BEEF 

Total 
Nutrients 
Per  Cent 

Calories 

Cost  per  Lb. 

Amount 
of 
Nutrients 
for  25  cts. 

Neck    

30.4 

880 

cents 
{    8 

0.95 

Chuck  ribs     

35  9 

1125 

1   6 

fie 

1.27 
0.56 

Kibs     

408 

1405 

112 

|22 

0.75 
0.47 

Brisket      

45.1 

1580 

1  18 

0.57 

Cross  ribs  

492 

1765 

Shoulder  

31  6 

895 

ru 

0.57 

Shin      

15.7 

310 

1  10 

0.79 

Plate                  .... 

45  7 

1600 

46.4 

1610 

Sirloin 

32  2 

970 

(22 

0.37 

Socket  

27.5 

880 

1  18 

0.45 

45.5 

1570 

|18 

0.63 

Round,  first  cut  .... 

Bound,  second  cut  .     .     . 
Lee 

31.5 

20.7 
10.5 

855 

505 
235 

1  15 
r  18 
1  15 
flO 
\   8 

0.76 
0.44 
0.52 
0.52 
0.65 

Top  of  sirloin     .... 
Flank  

55.9 
64.2 

2025 
2435 

f!6 

0.74 

1  10 

1.11 

From  this  table  it  is  evident  that  of  the  usual  cuts  one 
gets  the  most  for  one's  money  in  the  neck  and  in  the  flank, 
next  in  the  shoulder,  then  in  the  rump,  chuck  rib,  second 
cut  of  the  round,  ribs,  first  cut  of  round,  and  last  the  sirloin. 


PROTEIDS,   AND   HOW   TO   COOK  THEM 


145 


Veal.  —  The  flesh  of  veal  should  be  firm,  and  its  color 
pink.  The  bones,  too,  must  be  hard.  "  Bob  "  veal,  as  it  is 
called,  may  be  easily  recognized  by  its  flabby  flesh  of  a  blue 
tinge.  It  has  been  killed  too  young  and  is  very  unwhole- 
some. 

The  shoulder  alone  contains  24.8  per  cent  of  nutrients 
and  570  calories;  the  shoulder  and  fore  shank  together 
contain  26  per  cent  of  nutrients  and  715  calories. 

Mutton.  —  The  neck  is  used  for  stewing,  the  shoulder 
roasted,  the  leg  boiled  or  roasted,  the  saddle  roasted,  and 
the  chops  broiled. 


CUTS  OF  MUTTON 

Per  Cent  of 
Total 

Nutrients 

Calories 

Cost  per  Lb. 

Amount 
of 
Nutrients 
for25cts. 

Shoulder  

34.7 

1075 

cents 
f20 

0.44 

Neck     

32.1 

1055 

1  15 

0.58 

Hock    

36.4 

1160 

Leg  . 

31.3 

935 

|25 

0.31 

Loin 

42  7 

1480 

1  20 

0.39 

Flank  

60.0 

2145 

This  table  shows  the  total  amount  of  nutrients,  the 
calories,  and  the  relative  economies  of  the  various  cuts 
(At water).  As  in  the  previous  table,  the  last  column  is  of 
particular  interest. 

Lamb.  —  The  meat  is  at  its  best  when  it  is  two  months 
old.  It  is  sold  by  the  quarter.  The  hind  quarter  is  the 
most  expensive,  but  the  fore  quarter  contains  a  larger  per 
cent  of  nutrient  and  more  calories. 


146  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Pork. 


Total 

Amount 

POBK 

Nutrients 
Per  Cent 

Calories 

Cost  per  Lb. 

of 
Nutrients 
for  25  cts. 

cents 

Shoulder  roast   .     .     .     . 

42.4 

1435 

— 

— 

Ham  smoked 

61.8 

1735 

ne 

0.81 

112 

1.08 

58.8 

2065 

r  15 

1.46 

1  12 

1.83 

This  table,  like  the  others,  is  taken  from  Atwater,  and  is 
based  on  cuts  as  bought  in  the  market. 

Poultry.  —  Turkeys  contain  more  nutrients  than  chickens. 

The  legumens,  beans,  peas,  etc.,  contain  the  greatest 
amount  of  protein  arid  at  the  least  cost,  as  will  be  seen 
on  consulting  Charts  I  and  II  in  the  chapter  on  Foods. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  protein  contained  in  them  is  less 
digestible. 

Review  Boiling.     See  chapter  on  Principles  of  Cooking. 

Practice. 

EGGS 

What  is  the  composition  of  the  white  of  an  egg  ?  Of  the 
yolk  ?  What  effect  will  long  continued  boiling  temperature 
have  upon  yeast  ?  What  disadvantage  will  this  be  in  the 
ultimate  cooking?  What  will  be  the  effect  of  too  great 
heat  ?  Too  little  ?  What  is  the  optimum  temperature  for 
boiling  an*  egg  ?  What  two  ways  may  this  .be  obtained  ? 

Write  a  recipe  for  boiling  an  egg. 

Boiled  Egg.  —  I.  Place  an  egg  in  a  saucepan.  Cover  with 
cold  water,  bring  the  water  slowly  to  the  boiling  point, 
letting  it  boil  a  few  seconds. 


PKOTEIDS,   AND   HOW  TO   COOK  THEM  147 


II.  Cover  an  egg,  first  with  warm  water,  and  then  with 
boiling  water.  Let  the  water,  cooled  by  the  addition  of  the 
egg,  again  come  to  a  boil.  Cover,  and  remove  the  saucepan 
from  the  fire.  In  five  minutes  the  egg  will  be  sufficiently 
cooked. 

Poached  Egg.  —  In  a  saucepan,  put  a  muffin  ring.  Cover  it 
with  boiling  water.  Add  a  pinch  of  salt.  (Why  ?)  Into  this 
ring  carefully  drop  an  egg.  If  the  yolk  breaks,  reject  it.  At 
once  set  the  pan  to  one  side,  and  let  the  egg  cook  until  the 
yolk  has  set  and  the  white  is  translucent  and  a  firm  jelly. 
This  will  be  in  about  fifteen  minutes.  In  the  meantime 
get  ready  pieces  of  toast  somewhat  larger  than  the  rings. 
Moisten  the  crust  with  hot  water,  spread  with  butter.  Lift 
and  drain  the  eggs  carefully  with  a  skimmer,  placing  them 
on  the  square  of  toast.  Eemove  the  ring  and  garnish  with 
a  bit  of  green. 

MUTTON 

From  what  animal  is  mutton  obtained  ?  What  parts  of 
the  sheep  are  cooked  ?  How  ?  Should  it  be  well  done  or 
rare?  What  sauce  is  served  with  it?  What  vegetables 
may  be  boiled  with  it?  Which  will  take  the  longer  to 
cook?  At  what  temperature  is  albumen  coagulated? 
What  objection  to  immersing  the  leg  of  mutton  at  once 
in  water  165°  F?  What  should  we  do?  Why?  Write 
recipes. 

Recipe  for  Boiled  Mutton.  — The  fat  of  mutton  is  apt  to  be 
strong.  Therefore  trim  off  a  part  of  it.  Put  the  leg  in 
enough  boiling  water  to  cover  it.  Let  it  boil  fifteen  min- 
utes. Put  the  pot  to  one  side  and  let  it  simmer  for  a  length 
of  time  depending  upon  the  size,  allowing  fifteen  minutes 
to  the  pound.  Half  an  hour  before  it  is  time  to  take  off 
the  meat,  add  a  carrot  and  a  turnip,  cutting  each  into  thick 
slices.  In  the  meantime  make  ready  chopped  parsley  or 


148  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

capers  and  a  white  sauce  (see  white  sauce  in  Starchy  Foods, 
and  egg  sauce  in  chapter  on  Fish).  Put  the  mutton  on  a 
warm  dish,  smear  it  evenly  and  smoothly  with  white  sauce, 
and  sprinkle  over  it  the  chopped  parsley.  Garnish  with  the 
vegetables  and  serve  with  caper  sauce. 

Shall  we  throw  away  the  water  ?  Why  not  ?  What  does 
it  contain  besides  the  extraction  of  the  meat  ?  What  can  we 
do  with  it  ? 

For  an  individual  recipe  for  boiled  mutton,  give  the  chil- 
dren each  a  small  chunky  piece,  and  cook  as  indicated  in 
the  full  recipe  given  above,  using  the  individual  white  sauce 
given  in  the  chapter  on  Starchy  Foods.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  meat  is  always  just  covered  with  water 
and  no  more. 

Recipe  for  an  Economical  Soup.  —  Add  to  such  water  the 
left  overs  that  have  been  accumulating  in  the  stock  pot,  viz., 
bones  (these  must  be  broken  up),  gravy,  spoonfuls  of  vege- 
tables, pieces  of  meat.  Let  this  compound  simmer  for  five 
or  six  hours.  Strain  into  a  bowl  and  leave  uncovered  to 
cool.  Eemove  the  grease,  and  use  as  stock  with  rice  or 
vegetables  for  soup. 

Recipe  for  Floating  Island  Q-).  —  Put  in  a  double  boiler  one 
cup  of  milk.  Scald,  but  do  not  boil.  Take  it  from  the  fire, 
adding  it  slowly,  stirring  all  the  time,  to  the  slightly  beaten 
yolk  of  two  eggs,  to  which  a  tablespoonf  ul  sugar  and  quarter 
of  a  saltspoon  of  salt  have  been  added.  Eeplace  on  the  fire, 
stirring  constantly  until  it  is  smooth  and  creamy.  If  it  be- 
gins to  grain,  put  the  pan  in  cold  water  and  beat  vigorously 
with  a  Dover  egg-beater.  Keturn  to  the  fire.  When  it 
coats  the  spoon,  strain  it  into  two  cold  cups  and  add  ten 
drops  of  vanilla. 

Beat  to  a  stiff  froth  the  white  of  the  egg,  divide  it  be- 
tween the  two  custards,  and  set  in  the  oven  for  a  moment  to 
brown. 


PROTEIDS,   AND   HOW   TO   COOK  THEM  149 


Why  is  a  custard  cooked  in  a  double  boiler  ?  What  does 
the  graining  mean  ?  Why  is  it  plunged  into  cold  water  ? 
What  is  the  philosophy  of  beating  it  ? 

The  proportions  for  a  full  recipe  for  custards  are  as 
follows:  5  to  8  eggs;  1  quart  milk;  1  saltspoon  of  salt;  1 
teaspoonful  vanilla. 

Steaming  or  Braizing.  —  Instead  of  surrounding  the  food 
material  with  water,  steam  may  be  the  cooking  medium. 
It  is  an  excellent  way  to  cook  the  less  expensive  cuts,  as,  for 
example,  the  under  side  of  the  round,  and  depends  for  its 
success  on  long,  slow  cooking. 

Recipe.  —  Mix  J  cup  each  of  diced  salt  pork,  carrot,  tur- 
nip, onion,  and  celery  together.  Spread  all  except  a  half 
cupful  in  the  bottom  of  a  baking  pan.  On  this  bed  of  vege- 
tables place  a  chunky  three-pound  piece  of  beef  from  either 
the  upper  or  the  lower  round.  Dredge  it  with  flour.  Place 
it  in  a  hot  oven  to  sear  the  outside.  This  will  take  from  20 
to  25  minutes.  Now  add  two  cupf  uls  of  water,  a  bunch  of 
potherbs,  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Spread  the  half 
cupful  of  vegetables  over  the  meat.  Cover  it  closely  with 
another  pan.  Shut  off  the  drafts  and  let  it  cook  very 
slowly  from  four  to  five  hours.  The  sauce  already  formed 
in  the  pan  needs  only  to  be  strained  and  seasoned  with  salt 
and  pepper.  Serve  with  or  without  the  vegetables. 

Practice.  —  Eeview  Stewing. 

Old  Fashioned  Lamb  Stew  (-J-).  —  Take  one  pound  of  neck 
meat  of  a  yearling.  This  is  very  rich  meat,  but  the  pres- 
ence of  the  vertebrae  makes  it  difficult  to  manipulate.  It 
should  be  sawn  through,  not  chopped,  but  it  is  usually  nec- 
essary first  to  educate  the  butcher  to  this  and  other  niceties. 
(Why  is  it  necessary  to  cut  it  into  small  pieces  ?)  Add  an 
onion  cut  in  pieces,  and  enough  cold  water  to  cover  the 


150  HANDBOOK  OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

meat.  Cover  closely ;  bring  it  to  the  simmering  point  and 
let  it  simmer  for  a  couple  of  hours.  (Why  was  cold  water 
added?  Why  is  it  kept  at  simmering  instead  of  boiling 
temperature  ?)  With  so  small  a  quantity  of  meat  it  will  be 
necessary  to  watch  it  and  add  water  as  may  be  necessary. 
Now  add  to  the  meat  •£•  the  quantity  of  halved  potatoes,  a 
few  slices  of  carrots,  and  salt  and  pepper  to  taste.  Re- 
cover,  and  let  it  boil  another  hour.  (Why  were  not  the 
vegetables  added  in  the  beginning  ?) 

Many  people  saut£  the  meat  used  in  the  stews.  This  is 
a  poor  method.  Not  only  is  it  more  trouble,  but  it  certainly 
gives  both  a  less  digestible  meat  and  less  flavoring  broth. 

Fricasseed  Chicken.  — The  chicken  need  not  be  young.  It 
must  be  drawn  at  once. 

To  Draw  a  Chicken.  —  Remove  the  pin  feathers,  and  then 
singe  the  chicken.  Use  lighted  paper  or  alcohol.  Every 
part  of  the  fowl  must  be  exposed  to  the  flame.  This  may 
be  most  easily  done  by  holding  it  by  the  head  and  feet  and 
turning  it  constantly. 

Wash  the  outside  of  the  chicken  thoroughly  with  plenty 
of  water  and  a  cloth.  The  skin  should  be  scraped  with  a 
dull  knife,  for  it  is  full  of  dirt  from  exposure  and  handling. 

Cut  off  the  head,  cut  the  skin  down  the  back  of  the  neck 
and  turn  it  over.  Kemove  carefully  the  crop  and  windpipe. 
Now  cut  off  the  neck  close  to  the  body,  folding  the  skin  over 
the  opening.  The  neck  should  be  saved  for  the  stew. 

Bend  the  leg  back  slightly  and  cut  the  skin  on  the  joint. 
This  will  expose  the  tendons.  Run  a  fork  under  them  and 
draw  them  out.  Break  off  the  leg  at  the  joint  with  the  ten- 
dons hanging  to  it.  Save  these  for  the  stock  pot. 

Cut  a  small  opening  under  the  rump,  anterior  to  the  vent. 
With  the  finger  loosen  the  viscera  from  the  body.  Repeat 
this  process  in  the  neck  opening.  Cut  a  circle  around  the 
vent.  Now  draw  out  the  viscera  in  one  mass  without  break- 


PROTEIDS,   AND  HOW  TO   COOK   THEM  151 

ing  any  portion  of  it.  If  either  the  gall  or  the  intestine 
should  be  broken,  wash  it  out  at  once.  In.  any  event  the  in- 
terior must  be  wiped  out  with  wet  cloth.  Cut  the  gall  from 
the  liver ;  cut  open  the  gizzard,  removing  the  inner  sack  en- 
tire ;  open  the  heart  and  wash  away  the  blood  clot. 

On  the  back  of  the  rump  will  be  found  the  oil  sack  which 
keeps  the  feathers  in  good  condition.  As  it  is  rather  strong 
in  flavor,  cut  it  away. 

In  teaching  the  children  how  to  draw  a  chicken,  lead 
them  to  reason  out  each  step  in  the  work.  For  example, 
show  them  the  chicken.  What  should  be  removed? 
How?  Scrape  the  skin  with  a  dull  knife,  showing  them 
the  dirt.  What  shall  we  do  next  ?  How  ? 

What  organs  are  within  the  body  of  the  chicken  ?  Will 
it  do  to  let  these  remain  ?  Why  not  ?  Show  them  a 
dissected  fowl,  or  a  diagram  of  one.  Where  will  it  be 
easiest  to  withdraw  the  crop  and  windpipe?  The  other 
organs  ?  How  shall  we  do  this  ? 

Examine  the  viscera.  Which  parts  are  used  in  cooking  ? 
How  shall  we  prepare  each  ?  Why  ?  What  does  the  gall 
contain?  What  is  its  function  in  digestion?  Cut  open 
the  inner  sack  of  the  gizzard.  What  does  it  contain? 
Why?  Why  do  birds  have  gizzards?  (Examine  the 
mouth  and  consider  the  food  for  the  answer  to  this 
question.) 

What  is  the  protuberance  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
rump?  What  is  its  function?  Shall  we  remove  it? 
Why? 

Write  directions  for  cleaning  and  drawing  a  fowl,  illus- 
trating it  with  diagram. 

Recipe.  —  Cut  off  the  two  drumsticks,  the  two  second 
joints,  the  two  wings,  two  pieces  of  breast.  Divide  the 
back  into  three  pieces.  Cover  with  cold  water  and  bring 
slowly  to  a  boil.  Set  it  back  where  it  will  simmer.  Add  to 


152  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

it  a  few  slices  of  salt  pork  and  a  bunch  of  pot-herbs. 
Cover,  and  let  it  simmer  until  quite  tender.  The  time 
depends  upon  the  age  of  the  chicken. 

Put  the  pieces  on  a  warm  dish,  arranging  them  neatly. 
Strain  the  water  in  which  it  was  cooked,  removing  all 
grease.  Use  a  cupful  of  this  to  make  a  white  sauce  (see 
chapter  on  Starchy  Foods).  If  care  has  been  taken  not  to 
add  more  water  than  will  cover  the  meat,  there  will  not  be 
much  more  than  enough  fluid.  If  there  is,  evaporate  it 
quickly  to  the  required  amount. 

Veal  Pot-pie.  —  Use  the  method  and  recipe  given  for  a 
lamb  stew. 

Cook  the  dumplings  in  a  separate  pot  with  plenty  of 
water,  or  else  in  the  same  pot  with  the  meat.  In  the  latter 
case  care  must  be  taken  that  the  water  does  not  cease  to 
bubble  while  they  are  in. 

Dumplings  (J).  — Mix  together  ^  cup  flour,  1  saltspoonful 
of  salt,  and  -|-  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder.  Stir  in 
quickly  %  cupful  of  milk.  Drop  the  soft  dough  from  a 
spoon  into  boiling  water.  It  will  take  ten  minutes  to  cook 
them.  They  must  be  served  as  soon  as  they  are  taken  from 
the  pot. 

Review  .Extracting. 

Stock.  —  One  recipe  has  already  been  given  under  boiling. 

Brown  stock  is  made  from  beef,  either  alone  or  with 
other  meats,  and  mixed  vegetables. 

White  stock  is  made  either  from  veal  or  chicken,  alone, 
or  both  together.  It  is  seasoned  with  onion,  celery,  white 
pepper  and  salt. 

Soup  meats  are  the  lower  round,  the  shin  and  the  neck  of 
beef,  and  the  knuckle  of  veal. 

The  proportions  are  a  quart  to  a  pound,  and  one  vegeta- 
ble. The  vegetables  used  are  onions,  carrots,  turnips,  and 


PKOTEIDS,   AND   HOW   TO   COOK  THEM  153 

celery.  It  is  usual  to  make  at  one  time  from  four  to  eight 
quarts,  and  add  a  bunch  of  pot-herbs  to  this  quantity. 

These  facts,  plus  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  ex- 
tracting, ought  to  enable  any  one  to  write  a  recipe. 

Stock.  —  Procure  a  four-pound  piece  of  a  shin  of  beef. 
This  should  be  well  broken  by  the  butcher.  Take  off  the 
lean  meat  and  cut  it  into  small  pieces.  Put  all  into  a  per- 
fectly clean  pot  which  has  been  washed  in  soda  and  scoured 
clean.  Add  to  the  meat  four  quarts  of  cold  water.  Let  it 
stand  half  an  hour,  and  then  bring  it  slowly  to  a  boil.  In 
the  meantime,  wash,  scrape,  and  cut  the  vegetables  (turnip, 
carrot,  onion,  stalk  of  celery)  into  small  pieces.  Add  these 
to  the  pot,  and  set  it  where  it  can  simmer  for  five  or  six 
hours.  Add  two  teaspoonfuls  of  salt  just  before  removing 
it  from  the  stove.  Strain  it  into  an  earthen  bowl,  and  cool 
at  once.  When  used,  remove  carefully  the  layer  of  grease ; 
salt  and  pepper  it  to  taste. 

From  this  stock  may  be  made  macaroni,  noodle,  vermi- 
celli, vegetable,  julienne,  and  tapioca,  by  adding  to  it  just 
before  serving  the  boiled  vegetable  indicated  by  the  name. 
In  julienne  soup,  the  vegetables  are  in  two-inch  shreds.  A 
knife  conies  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  these. 

Eeview  Roasting.  In  roasting  meat  what  is  done  with 
reference  to  the  temperature,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
juices?  Explain.  Why  may  not  this  heat  be  continued 
during  the  whole  cooking?  Which  requires  the  more 
intense  heat  at  the  beginning,  a  small,  or  a  large  roast? 
Why?  How  can  you  regulate  the  temperature  of  the 
oven  ?  Explain. 

Recipe.  —  Choose  a  rib  roast,  well  streaked  with  fat,  and 
bright  red  in  color.  Wipe  it  with  a  damp  cloth.  (What  is 
the  objection  to  washing  it  ?)  Place  it  in  the  rack  of  the 
roasting  pan.  Dredge  it  with  flour.  (Why?)  In  the 


154  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

corner  of  the  pan  put  two  tablespoonf  uls  of  drippings,  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a  saltspoonful  of  pepper.  The  salt, 
at  least,  must  not  touch  the  meat.  (Why  ?)  Put  it  into  a 
very  hot  oven  until  the  surface  is  seared  and  brown  (about 
twenty  minutes).  Lower  the  temperature  of  the  oven  by 
shutting  off  the  drafts.  Baste  frequently  with  the  liquid 
in  the  pan,  to  which  a  cup  of  water  may  be  added.  For 
rare  meat,  eight  minutes  to  the  pound  will  be  usually 
sufficient. 

Good  cooks  often  refuse  to  put  water  in  the  pan,  saying 
that  the  steam  from  it  keeps  the  roast  from  browning ;  but 
the  roast  should  be  browned  in  the  first  heating.  Adding 
hot  fat  continually  to  the  surface  makes  it  less  indigestible, 
whereas  the  water  lowers  the  temperature,  allowing  the 
meat  within  to  cook  slowly. 

Gravy.  —  Pour  off  all  the  fat  from  the  pan.  Add  one  cup 
of  water.  Season  to  taste,  with  salt  and  pepper.  Mix  one 
teaspoonful  of  flour  with  enough  cold  water  to  make  a 
smooth  paste.  Brown  it  in  the  oven.  Stir  it  into  the 
boiling  water.  Let  it  boil  for  five  minutes,  stirring  all  the 
time.  Strain,  and  serve  in  a  hot  dish. 

BAKED  CUSTARDS 

What  are  the  ingredients  of  custard?  What  tempera- 
ture does  milk  require  for  boiling?  What  difference  in 
the  general  temperature  of  the  oven  for  baking  a  custard 
than  from  that  required  in  roasting  meat  ?  Is  it  necessary 
to  have  a  preliminary  high  temperature  ?  Why  not  ? 
What  precaution  did  we  take  against  too  great  heat  in 
cooking  boiled  custard  ?  How  can  we  apply  this  principle 
in  baked  custards  ? 

Recipe. — Use  the  same  proportions  and  methods  as  in 
boiled  custard.  Turn  the  mixture  into  two  cups.  Grate  a 
little  nutmeg  over  the  top.  Set  them  in  a  dish  of  hot 


PROTEIDS,   AND   HOW  TO   COOK  THEM  155 

water  in  a  moderate  oven.  Cook  until  the  centre  is  firm. 
This  may  be  tested  by  running  a  knife  into  it.  If  it  comes 
out  clean,  it  is  cooked  enough. 

If  it  has  been  baked  slowly,  at  a  low  temperature,  it  will 
be  solid  and  smooth.  If  it  is  full  of  holes,  then  the 
temperature  of  the  oven  was  too  high.  This  converts  the 
water  into  steam,  which  finally  escapes,  but  leaves  behind 
the  holes  made  in  its  formation. 

Review  Broiling. 

Recipe  for  Broiled  Beefsteak.  —  If  a  tough  cut  is  used, 
pound  it  before  broiling,  or  else  brush  it  on  both  sides 
with  a  mixture  of  one  part  vinegar  and  two  parts  oil,  letting 
it  stand  at  least  two  hours  before  cooking.  The  vinegar, 
held  in  check  by  the  oil,  partially  dissolves  the  tough  fibre. 

Cut  off  the  superfluous  fat  and,  if  it  is  a  sirloin  or  porter- 
house piece,  remove  the  end.  (Where  shall  we  put  the 
fat  ?  The  end  ?)  Make  the  surface  smooth  by  striking  it 
with  the  broad  side  of  the  knife. 

The  broiler  must  be  very  hot.  Put  a  piece  of  the  meat 
fat  on  the  end  of  a  fork  and  grease  it  well.  Put  the  steak 
between  the  broiler,  and  near  clear  hot  coals.  Turn  every 
ten  seconds.  When  done,  it  will  be  puffed  up  between  the 
wires.  (Why  ?) 

A  steak  an  inch  and  a  half  thick  will  require  about  eight 
minutes  of  cooking.  Sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper,  and 
spread  with  butter.  Serve  at  once. 

Chops  and  steak,  too,  may  be  broiled  in  a  frying  pan,  by 
removing  all  fat,  putting  them  in  a  dry,  red-hot  pan,  and 
turning  with  a  skimmer,  allowing  them  to  cook  more  slowly 
when  the  outside  is  seared. 

Review  Frying. 


156  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

CROQUETTES 

These  may  be  made  from  the  chopped  meat  of  chicken 
(white  meat,  or  dark  meat,  or  both  together),  of  veal,  of 
sweetbreads  and  mushrooms,  of  fish,  of  soup  meat,  etc. 

Individual  Recipe.  —  To  the  white  sauce  (see  chapter  on 
Starchy  Foods)  add  half  a  cupful  of  chopped  meat,  seasoned 
with  saltspoonful  of  salt,  same  quantity  of  onion  juice,  a 
dash  of  pepper  and  a  dash  of  nutmeg.  Pour  the  mixture  on 
a  dish  and  set  it  aside  for  at  least  two  hours.  Then  take 
half  the  mixture  and  roll  it  lightly  into  a  ball.  On  the 
moulding  board  spread  a  plentiful  supply  of  bread  crumbs, 
spread  evenly.  Roll  the  ball  on  these,  into  a  cylinder, 
flattening  the  ends  by  dropping  it  lightly  on  the  board. 

To  %  the  white  of  one  egg,  add  a  teaspoonful  of  water, 
stirring.  Moisten  the  croquette  thoroughly  with  this,  using 
a  spoon  for  the  purpose.  Lift  it  with  the  blade  of  the 
knife,  and  again  roll  it  in  the  crumbs.  See  that  every  part 
is  thoroughly  covered.  Set  them  aside  for  at  least  an  hour 
before  frying. 

They  are  now  covered  completely  with  a  thin  layer  of 
albumen.  This  the  heat  will  coagulate,  and  it  will  be 
impossible  for  the  grease  to  soak  in. 

To  fry  them,  have  ready  a  kettle  of  olive  oil  or  cottolene. 
When  it  is  smoking  hot  (why?)  put  the  croquettes  on  the 
basket,  and  immerse  them  completely.  (Why  ?)  A  long 
iron  or  wooden  spoon,  on  which  to  hang  the  basket, 
will  save  the  hand  from  being  spattered  with  the  burning 
fat. 

Let  the  croquettes  stay  in  the  oil  only  as  long  as  is 
necessary  to  brown  them.  Kaise  the  basket  and  let  them 
drain  for  a  moment.  Place  them  on  brown  paper  in  the 
open  oven. 

If  the  moulding  and  frying  have  been  done  properly,  they 


PKOTEIDS,   AND   HOW   TO   COOK  .THEM  157 

will  be  so  free  from  grease  that  they  may  be  served  in  a 
white  napkin. 

By  saute  is  meant  the  usual  form  of  frying  in  a  shallow 
pan  with  a  little  fat.  It  is,  for  reasons  given  under  Frying, 
in  the  chapter  on  Principles  of  Cooking  the  most  objection- 
able way  of  cooking. 


JANUARY 


PRINCIPLES   OF  COOKING 

BY  L.  L.  W.  WILSON,  PH.D., 

OF  THE  PHILADELPHIA  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

ADVANCED  COUKSE  :     FISH,   OYSTEKS,   AND 
SALADS 

BY  ALICE  HOOPER  BECKLER,  B.S., 

FORMEELT  INSTRUCTOR  IN  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE,  PRATT  INSTITUTE  ; 

NOW  TEACHER  IN  CHARGE  OF  THE  ZOOLOGICAL  LABORATORY,  PHILADELPHIA 

NORMAL  SCHOOL 

Many  of  the  recipes  for  this  chapter  have  been  specially  prepared  by 
Mrs.  Ada  Byron  Fink,  in  charge  of  the  lunchroom  of  the  Philadelphia 
Normal  School. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKING 
BY  L.  L.  W.  WILSON,  PH.D. 

Uncivilized  man  takes  his  nourishment  like  animals  —  as  it  is  offered 
Nature.  Civilized  man  prepares  his  food  before  eating  and  in  ways 
which  are,  in  general,  the  more  perfect  the  higher  his  culture.  The  art 
of  cooking,  when  not  allied  with  a  degenerate  taste  or  with  gluttony, 
is  one  of  the  criteria  of  a  people's  civilization.  —  KONIG. 

.BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning,  Mrs.  Richards  and  Miss  Elliott ; 
Chemistry  of  Cookery,  W.  MA  Williams  ;  Science  of  Nutrition,  Edward 
Atkinson ;  Practical  Sanitary  and  Economic  Cooking  (Lamb  Prize 
Essay),  Mary  Hinman  Abel;  Household  Economics,  Miss  Parloa ; 
Meats,  Composition  and  Cooking,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  34 ;  Chemis- 
try and  Economy  of  Foods,  Atwater,  Bulletin  No.  21,  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  price  fifteen  cents  ;  Curiosities  of  Literature,  vol.  2, 
Disraeli;  Essays  of  Elia,  "Roast  Pig"  and  "Grace  Before  Meat," 
Charles  Lamb  ;  Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  32,  p.  763  (Art  of  Cooking)  ; 
Eclectic,  vol.  120,  p.  77 ;  Quarterly,  vol.  178,  p.  82 ;  Nation,  vol.  24, 
p.  676 ;  vol.  25,  p.  776 ;  Chautauquan,  vol.  15,  p.  622  (Elizabethan 
Cooking)  ;  vol.  17,  p.  467 ;  vol.  25,  p.  51  (Principles  of  Cookery)  ; 
Forum,  vol.  15,  p.  355  (Science  of  Cooking  in  the  New  England 
Kitchen)  ;  LittelPs  Living  Age,  vol.  155,  p.  187  (History  of  Cooking)  ; 
Atlantic  Monthly,  vol.  68,  p.  215  (History  of  Cooking)  ;  Saturday 
Review,  vol.  72,  p.  522  (17th  Century  Cooking);  Munsey,  vol.  9. 
p.  326  (Renaissance  of  Cookery)  ;  North  American  Review,  vol.  152, 
p.  461  (Humors  of  the  Cook  Book) ;  Popular  Science  Monthly,  vol. 
36,  p.  1  (Art  of  Cooking,  Atkinson)  ;  Galaxy,  vol.  2,  p.  215 ;  vol.  4, 
p.  863  (Ancient  and  Modern  Cooking)  ;  Blackwood,  vol.  60,  p.  238 
H  161 


162  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

(Cooking  and  Civilization)  ;  Lippincott,  vol.  1,  p.  91  (Cooking  in 
History)  ;  American  Kitchen  Magazine,  vol.  6,  p.  51  (Evolution  in 
Methods  of  Cooking  and  Heating). 

Facts.  —  Atkinson  defines  cooking  as  the  art  of  applying 
heat  to  foods  in  such  a  way  as 

(1)  To  render  it  digestible,  so  that  its  nutrient  properties 
may  be   assimilated  in   true  proportions    in    the    human 
system. 

(2)  To  render  it  appetizing  by  the  development  of  its  own 
specific  flavor. 

(3)  To  combine  different  kinds  of  food  material  in  such  a 
way  that  each  will  render  the  other  palatable. 

(4)  To  remove  certain  portions  which  may  not  be  pala- 
table or  digestible  after  the  first  application  of  heat,  either 
as  waste,  like  bone,  or  as  excess,  like  much  of  the  fat  that 
may  be  used  for  other  purposes,  or  as  woody  fibre  in  many 
vegetables. 

(5)  To  add  to  the  essential  elements  salt  in  its  due  pro- 
portion in  almost  every  process,  and  sugar  in  some  combi- 
nations, and  other  condiments,  spices,  or  flavorings  in  such  a 
way  as  to  develop  rather  than  disguise  the  true  flavor  of  the 
principal  food  material  entering  into  each  dish. 

In  addition  to  these  five  results  of  cooking  may  be  given 
another  and  very  important  one,  viz.,  the  destruction  of  all 
parasites  and  bacteria. 

The  effect  of  cooking  of  the  starches  is  to  break  up  the 
granules,  bursting  the  enclosing  sack.  Cooking  dissolves  the 
connective  tissue  of  meats  and  fish,  thus  making  the  muscle 
fibres  more  accessible  to  the  digestive  juices.  Nevertheless, 
the  cooked  proteins,  both  meat  and  milk,  take  a  longer  time 
for  digestion  than  the  uncooked.  A  quantity  of  raw  beef 
that  will  digest  in  two  hours  requires  two  and  a  half  hours 
when  boiled  half  done ;  three  hours,  boiled  well  done ;  three 


PRINCIPLES   OF   COOKING  163 

hours,  roasted  half  done;  and  four  hours  roasted  well 
done. 

Boiling,  steaming,  stewing,  extracting,  roasting,  broiling, 
frying,  are  the  main  methods  employed  in  cooking. 

Effects  of  Heat.  —  To  understand  the  relative  merits  and 
best  way  of  using  these  various  methods  it  is  necessary  to 
know  the  effects  of  different  temperatures  upon  the  food 
elements.  Long  continued  high  temperature  together  with 
more  or  less  moisture  is  necessary  for  the  cooking  of  all 
starchy  foods.  The  amount  of  moisture  and  length  of  cook- 
ing depends  upon  whether  the  result  is  to  be  "  mealy,"  or  a 
sweet  nutty  paste.  For  a  temperature  of  320°  F.  is  required 
to  change  starch  to  dextrin,  and  a  still  higher  temperature 
to  change  this  product  into  sugar. 

For  a  fuller  exposition  of  this  subject,  see  the  chapter  on 
Starchy  Foods,  and  How  to  Cook  Them. 

Heat  coagulates  the  proteids.  This  may  be  seen  in  the  cook- 
ing of  milk.  The  caseine  (a  proteid)  thickens  with  heat,  forms 
a  layer  across  the  top.  The  white  of  egg  —  almost  pure  al- 
bumen—  coagulates  at  about  165°  F.  Additional  heat  first 
brings  out  the  flavor  (about  180°  F.),  and  still  greater  heat 
makes  it  hard  and  indigestible.  These  statements  are  approx- 
imately true  for  the  protein  of  meat  and  fish  as  well  as  of  eggs. 

Obviously,  then,  a  high  temperature,  desirable  in  cooking 
the  starches,  is  undesirable  for  the  proteids. 

Effects  of  Cold  Water.  —  Cold  water  is  an  extractive.  It 
"  draws  out "  the  flavors  of  meats  and  the  starch  of  the 
starchy  vegetables.  Therefore  the  latter  should  not  soak  in 
it,  nor  should  meats  be  subjected  to  its  influence  unless  it  is 
desired  to  extract  the  soluble  elements,  to  make  a  broth,  or 
soup,  or  bouillon. 

Method.  —  To  show  the  effects  of  cold  water  on  starchy 
vegetables  and  something  of  their  composition,  use  Experi- 
ment 5  and  the  suggested  "Home  Work"  given  under 


164  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Method  in  the  first  part  of  the  chapter  on  Starchy  Foods. 
Experiments  2,  3,  and  4  show  the  effects  of  heat  on  starch. 
White  sauce,  its  theory  and  practice,  should  be  taught  also. 
To  make  this  still  clearer,  show  them  these  illustrations :  — 


1.  CELLS  OF  A  RAW  POTATO,  WITH  STARCH  GRAINS  IN  NATURAL 
CONDITION 

To  show  the  effects  of  different  temperatures  on  albumen, 
try  the  following  experiments :  — 

(1)  Put  an  egg  in  a  cold  saucepan,  cover  it  with  boiling 
water,  cover,  and  put  it  on  a  board  away  from  the  fire  for 
ten  minutes.     Take  the  temperature. 

(2)  Put  an  egg  in  a  saucepan  in  which  water  is  boiling. 
Cover  and  put  away  as  in  1.     Take  temperature. 

(3)  Put  an  egg  in  boiling  water  and  let  it  boil  for  ten 
minutes.     The  temperature  will  be  of  course  212°  F. 

Notice  that  in  each  case  the  egg  has  cooked  for  ten  min- 
utes, but  at  temperatures  ranging  from  about  170°,  185°,  to 


PRINCIPLES   OF   COOKING 


165 


2.  CELLS  OF  A  POTATO  BOILED  IN  WATER  ONE-HALF  HOUR 


3.  CELLS  OF  A  POTATO  WELL  STEAMED  AND  MASHED 


166  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

212°.  In  the  first  case  the  white  will  be  coagulated,  the 
yolk  still  uncooked,  and  the  whole  egg  flavorless  ;  in  the 
second,  the  albumen  will  be  coagulated,  but  soft,  the  yolk 
somewhat  thickened,  and  the  whole  quite  Savory ;  in  the 
third  the  white  will  be  hard  and  indigestible,  but  the  yolk 
will  be  mealy  and  eatable.  The  difference  between  the  time 
occupied  in  the  proper  cooking  of  the  yolk  and  the  white  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  yolk  contains  a  very  large  amount 
of  oil.  The  presence  of  oil  or  fat  renders  protein  less 
susceptible  to  the  hardening  effects  of  heat.  The  egg  in 
experiment  two  would  have  been  even  more  satisfactory  had 
it  been  put  in  cold  water  and  brought  to  a  boil.  The  high 
temperature  at  first  coagulates  the  outside  a  little  too  much. 
But  in  no  other  way  was  it  possible  to  make  the  time 
element  the  same  in  all  experiments.  From  these  ex- 
periments it  is  evident  the  best  temperature  for  cooking 
the  proteids  is  below  the  boiling  point. 

To  show  the  effect  of  cold  water  on  proteid,  let  each  stu- 
dent take  two  small  pieces  of  beef  of  equal  size.  Put  one 
in  cold  water,  and  the  other  in  boiling  water,  kept  boiling 
for  several  minutes.  At  the  end  of  half  an  hour  examine 
both  liquids  and  both  pieces  of  meat.  In  the  first  instance 
the  water  will  be  red  at  the  expense  of  the  meat,  from  which 
it  has  extracted  much  of  its  juice  and  soluble  food  materials. 
In  the  second  instance  the  hot  water  coagulated  the  protein 
on  the  outside.  Within  it  is  still  red  and  juicy. 

Each  student  should,  if  possible,  perform  all  these  experi- 
ments herself,  and  must  herself  think  out  the  deductions. 
She  must  also  be  drilled  on  the  facts,  for  it  is  only  when 
they  are  at  the  instant  command  of  her  mind  that  she  will 
be  able  to  continue  the  subject. 

Boiling  and  Steaming.  —  In  boiling  the  food  is  surrounded 
with  water  at  or  near  the  boiling  point.  Steaming  is  con- 
ducted on  the  same  principle,  except  that  the  surrounding 
and  cooking  medium  is  steam  instead  of  water. 


PRINCIPLES   OF   COOKING  167 

The  cells  of  vegetables  are  for  the  most  part  enclosed  in 
walls  of  cellulose.  The  older  the  vegetables  the  harder  and 
more  woody  are  the  walls.  From  this  it  follows  that  the 
older  vegetables  will  require  long  boiling  to  set  free  the 
cell  contents.  Green  vegetables  are  chiefly  valuable  for 
the  mineral  salts  that  they  contain.  These  unfortunately 
are  somewhat  soluble  in  water.  They  should,  therefore, 
be  cooked  no  longer  than  necessary.  All  vegetables  are 
boiled  from  the  beginning  in  water  at  the  boiling  point. 

In  general,  boiling  of  vegetables  makes  them  soft  and 
tender,  and  develops  the  flavor  usually  by  dissolving  out 
dextrin,  which  is  apt  to  be  present  wherever  starch  is  found, 
or  by  changing  the  starch  into  dextrin. 

For  further  details  consult  the  chapter  on  Starchy  Foods. 

Meats  and  fish  are  made  more  tender  by  boiling;  the 
gelatinoid  substances  of  the  connective  tissue  and  of  the 
bones  are  dissolved  out,  and  flavors  are  developed. 

Meat  contains  from  five  to  eight  per  cent  of  soluble  food 
materials.  These  include  not  only  the  amids,  extractives, 
and  gelatinoids,  but  also  some  albumen.  Remembering,  too, 
that  boiled  meat  takes  longer  to  digest,  it  seems  doubtful 
wisdom  to  cook  it  in  this  way. 

But  it  is  possible  to  minimize  the  loss  and  to  utilize  the 
unavoidable  waste.  This  is  done  by  making  use  of  the 
principle  that  heat  coagulates  albumen,  and  that  the  higher 
the  temperature  the  harder  will  be  the  product. 

For  this  reason  all  meats  to  be  boiled  are  immersed  in 
boiling  water  and  kept  boiling  for  ten  minutes.  The  result 
of  this  is  that  a  coat  of  hard  albumen  will  be  formed  which 
will  efficiently  prevent  the  further  escape  of  juices.  If  this 
treatment  were  to  be  continued,  the  interior  of  the  meat 
would  become  hard  and  indigestible,  too.  To  avoid  this,  the 
temperature  is  allowed  to  fall  to  about  180°  F. ;  and  with  long- 
cooking  at  this  "  simmering  "  temperature  the  meat  within 
will  be  tender  and  juicy. 


168  HANDBOOK   OP   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Since  the  escape  of  the  juices  has  been  prevented  in  a 
measure,  the  water  in  which  the  meat  is  boiled  is  not  as 
rich  as  it  would  be  otherwise;  but  it  is  still  too  good  to 
throw  away.  It  may  be  used  in  a  nutritious,  albeit  econom- 
ical soup,  the  recipe  for  which  is  given  under  the  head  of 
Boiling  in  the  chapter  on  Proteids. 

Boiling  of  Bones. — Long  boiling  of  bones  changes  their 
gelatinoids  into  soluble  gelatin.  When  this  is  done  under 
high  pressure,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  commercial  gelatin, 
then  nearly  all  the  cartilage  is  dissolved.  Soft,  spongy 
bones  contain  the  most  gelatin.  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  gelatinoids  are  excellent  fuel  foods.  It  is,  there- 
fore, great  extravagance  not  to  add  bones  to  the  stock  pot 
instead  of  throwing  them  away. 

Boiling  of  Milk.  —  Milk  boils  at  196°  F.  For  this  reason 
it  burns  easily  and  should  always  be  cooked  in  a  double 
boiler.  The  object  of  boiling  milk  is  to  kill  possible  disease 
germs.  Formerly  it  was  "  sterilized"  by  keeping  it  at  boil- 
ing temperature  for  one  hour.  This  did  kill  the  germs,  but 
it  also  rendered  the  milk  much  less  digestible.  It  is  now, 
therefore,  customary  to  pasteurize  the  milk,  particularly  if 
intended  for  young  children.  This  is  subjecting  it  to  a  lower 
temperature  for  half  an  hour.  An  easy  and  efficient  way  to 
pasteurize  milk  is  to  immerse  it  in  a  tightly  covered  pail  of 
boiling  water ;  set  this  on  a  block  of  wood,  or  a  wooden 
table  for  half  an  hour,  and  then  chill  it  with  water  and  put 
it  in  the  refrigerator.  Milk  so  treated  is  perfectly  digest- 
ible and  will  keep  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours. 

Methods.  —  Tell  the  children  to  boil  water  at  home,  watch- 
ing it  carefully  from  the  beginning.  Let  them  bring  to  you 
for  criticism  their  written  notes  on  the  following  points : 

(1)  Where  do  bubbles  first  form  ? 

(2)  Where  are  they  largest  ? 

(3)  When  are  they  largest  ? 


PRINCIPLES   OF   COOKING  169 

(4)  What  happens  just  before  the  actual  boiling  begins  ? 

(5)  What  is  the  cause  of  these  bubbles  ? 

(6)  At  what  temperature  does  the  water  begin  to  boil  ? 
What  is  its  temperature  after  ten  minutes'  boiling  ?  after  a 
half -hour? 

(7)  Has  no  more  heat  been  added  to  the  boiling  water  ? 

(8)  What  has  become  of  it  ? 

Of  course  most  children  will  be  unable  to  determine  the 
questions  of  temperature  at  home.  This  work,  then,  must 
be  performed  in  the  schoolroom. 

Get  from  the  children  the  fact  that  the  two  important 
sources  of  foods  are  plants  and  animals.  Let  them  classify 
each.  Probably  the  plants  will  be  subdivided  into  cereals, 
roots  and  tubers,  green  vegetables,  fruits ;  and  animal  food 
into  milk,  eggs,  meat,  poultry,  fish.  Consider  the  ap- 
proximate composition  of  each,  the  effect  of  heat  upon  it, 
and  the  consequent  method  and  time  of  boiling. 

Stewing. — The  object  of  stewing  is  to  cook  the  meat  so 
that  it  will  be  tender  and  juicy,  and  to  serve  with  it  the 
broth  in  which  it  has  been  cooked,  which  shall  also  be  rich 
and  appetizing.  Obviously,  to  put  the  meat  into  boiling 
water  will  keep  the  broth  from  receiving  its  quota  of  flavor 
and  food,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  let  it  stand  in  cold  water 
will  enrich  the  broth  at  too  great  an  expense  to  the  meat. 

The  usual  method  is  to  cut  the  meat  into  small  pieces, 
thus  exposing  a  large  amount  of  surface  to  the  cold  water, 
into  which  it  is  then  placed.  Then  raise  the  temperature 
to  the  simmering  point  (180°  F.)  and  let  it  cook  for  several 
hours. 

Allowing  the  water  to  boil  will  be  fatal  to  the  success  of 
the  stew,  for  at  that  temperature,  the  albuminoids  of  the 
meat  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  heat,  because  of  the  great 
amount  of  surface,  will  become  hardened  and  dry.  The 
meat  may  look  tender,  for  the  long  boiling  will  dissolve  the 


170  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

connective  tissue  and  set  the  muscle  fibres  free,  only  to 
expose  them  more  effectively  to  the  searing  action  of  the 
high  temperature,  thus  rendering  them  very  hard  and  dry. 

Extracting.  —  It  must  be  obvious  from  the  above,  that 
when  the  object  is  to  extract  from  meat  its  juices,  that  the 
proper  method  to  be  pursued  is  to  cut  it  into  small  pieces, 
exposing  it  for  half  an  hour  to  the  action  of  cold  water.  It 
should  then  be  covered,  put  on  the  stove,  and  gradually 
brought  to  the  simmering  point.  Let  it  simmer  for  five  or 
six  hours.  The  brown  scum  that  accumulates  on  the  surface 
is  coagulated  albumen,  and  thrown  awa}r  only  by  the  ignorant. 

The  meat  which  is  left  has  lost  its  extractives  (useful 
chiefly  for  flavor),  its  salts,  and  its  water,  and  a  small  part 
of  its  fats  and  albuminoids.  It  will  not  sustain  life  if  used 
as  an  exclusive  diet,  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  great  ex- 
travagance to  throw  it  away.  The  chief  objection  to  it  is 
that  it  is  not  palatable.  To  make  it  so,  and  also  to  restore 
to  it  part  of  its  lost  nutritive  value,  salt  it,  and  use  it  for 
meat  cakes  or  croquettes. 

Roasting.  — In  roasting,  as  in  boiling,  the  object  is  to  sear 
the  surface  of  the  meat  by  subjecting  it  suddenly  to  intense 
heat,  and  then  to  cook  it  thoroughly  by  long  exposure  to  a 
much  lower  temperature.  This  is  done  by  putting  it  into  a 
hot  oven  for  about  a  half-hour.  Then,  when  the  outside  is 
browned,  close  all  drafts,  opening  the  checks,  if  necessary, 
to  lower  the  temperature  for  the  slow  cooking  that  will  de- 
velop its  flavors. 

Potatoes,  containing  as  they  do  so  much  moisture,  may  be 
roasted.  Some  means  of  escape vmust  be  provided  for  the 
steam.  This  is  usually  accomplished  by  piercing  them  with 
a  fork,  when  they  are  half  done. 

Broiling.  —  Broiling  depends  on  the  same  principles  as 
roasting,  but  the  cooking  is  done  over  coals  instead  of  in 
the  oven. 


PRINCIPLES   OF   COOKING  171 

Frying.  —  Frying,  too,  depends  upon  the  same  principles, 
but  the  searing  medium  here  is  hot  fat.  The  hotter  the  fat, 
the  more  efficiently  will  it  sear  the  meat.  Therefore,  olive 
oil,  which  does  not  burn  until  it  reaches  a  temperature  of 
608°  F.,  is  the  best  material  to  use.  Cotton-seed  oil,  lard, 
drippings,  suet,  butter  (to  give  them  in  the  order  of  their 
burning  temperatures),  are  the  next  best  frying  media. 

Doughnuts  and  batters  generally  need  a  lower  tempera- 
ture than  breaded  meats.  These  in  turn  do  not  require  as 
high  a  temperature  as  potatoes.  Fish  and  all  watery  articles 
must  be  fried  at  the  highest  possible  temperature. 

The  rule  for  all  is  that  the  fat  should  be  "  smoking  hot." 
"  Smoking  hot/'  however,  may  be  divided  into  three  classes: 
1st,  when  a  faint  blue  smoke  rises  from  the  centre ;  2d,  a 
stronger  smoke ;  and  3d,  a  still  stronger  smoke.  The  last 
is  of  course  the  hottest,  and  the  fat  must  be  in  this  condi- 
tion before  it  can  be  used  for  fish. 

Why  does  fish  require  a  higher  temperature  ?  Because 
it  contains  much  water,  which  will  lower  the  temperature. 
Water  in  the  fat  means  that  the  temperature  will  be  so 
lowered  that  it  is  no  longer  capable  of  searing  the  food,  and 
for  these  reasons  penetrates  into  the  interior  and  soaks  it 
with  grease.  Therefore,  in  frying  any  wet  food,  watch  the 
fat  carefully.  When  it  has  bubbles  of  steam,  let  every  drop 
of  water  evaporate  by  keeping  it  hot. 

A  draft  of  air  cooling  the  surface  of  the  article  to  be  fried 
will  also  cause  it  to  absorb  the  grease.  This  is  the  reason 
why  it  is  important  to  fry  only  in  deep  fat. 

The  kettle  of  fat  needs  particular  care.  As  has  been  already 
indicated,  water  must  be  evaporated  from  it  before  it  is 
used  for  frying.  Consequently,  if  it  gets  too  hot,  it  may  be 
cooled  by  throwing  into  it  a  handful  of  raw  sliced  potatoes. 

After  use  it  should  be  at  once  set  in  a  cooler  place,  and, 
when  quite  cool,  but  still  liquid,  strained. 


172  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Method.  —  Treat  these  processes  of  cooking  in  the  way 
suggested  for  boiling. 

It  is  most  important  that,  if  possible,  the  experiments 
shall  be  individual  work.  At  any  rate  the  facts  deduced 
from  such  experiment  must  be  reasoned  out  by  each  pupil. 
An  excellent  device  is  first  to  review  the  experiment  so  as 
to  be  sure  that  all  essential  details  are  familiar  to  them, 
then  to  ask  suggestive  questions  developing  the  theory 
involved,  allowing  each  student  to  write  her  answer.  The 
papers  may  be  changed,  and  each,  over  her  own  signature, 
may  criticise  the  answer  of  another.  Collect  the  papers. 
For  your  own  advantage  look  over  some  at  least  of  the 
answers  originally  given  up.  Sometimes  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  let  the  children  write  an  answer  after  you  have  taught 
the  lesson. 

Do  not  forget  that  in  this,  as  in  all  other  subjects,  drill  is 
absolutely  necessary. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

FISH,  OYSTERS,  AND  SALADS 

BY  ALICE  HOOPER  BECKLER,  B.S. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

General :  Riverside  Natural  History ;  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 
Technical:  Anatomy  of  Vertebrated  Animals,  Huxley;  Elementary 
Course  in  Practical  Zoology,  Colton.  Propagation:  Finny  Protege's 
of  Uncle  Sam,  Cosmopolitan,  February,  1895;  Conservation  of  the 
Mackerel  Supply,  Popular  Science,  April,  1893;  Collecting  Salmon 
Spawn  in  Maine,  Harper's,  June,  1874 ;  Growth  of  Salmon,  Popular 
Science,  October,  1873  ;  also,  Popular  Science,  Vol.  35,  p.  359  ;  Temple 
Bar,  Vol.  92,  p.  203.  Food :  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  No.  85,  Fish  as  Food. 

For  further  investigation  refer  to  the  Bulletins  of  the  United  States 
Fish  Commission,  any  of  which  will  be  sent  upon  application  to  the 
department  at  Washington. 

FISH 

The  term  fish,  when  used  to  express  the  article  of  diet, 
generally  includes,  besides  the  backboned  forms,  mollusks 
and  crustaceans.  Here,  however,  it  refers  only  to  the  lowest 
group  of  the  vertebrates. 

External  Anatomy.  —  Shape  of  Body.  The  flat  body,  taper- 
ing at  both  ends  and  covered  with  scales,  is  well  adapted  for 
rapid  movement  though  the  water.  This  is  accomplished 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  sculling  a  boat,  the  oar  in  this 
case  being  the  tail  of  the  fish,  which  is  drawn  to  the  side 
and  then  forcibly  straightened,  thus  sending  the  fish  forward. 

173 


174 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


FISH  175 

Fins.  — These  are  folds  of  the  skin  supported  by  long  pro- 
cesses or  spines.  Like  most  vertebrates,  the  fish  also  has 
two  pairs  of  appendages,  the  paired  fins,  the  anterior 
known  as  the  pectoral,  or  arm  fins ;  the  posterior,  the  pelvic, 
ventral,  or  leg  fins.  The  latter  vary  in  position,  situated 
sometimes  near  the  pectoral,  sometimes  nearer  the  anal. 

Head.  —  The  posterior  boundary  of  the  head  is  marked  by 
the  gill  cover,  under  which  we  find  the  gills. 

Sense  Organs.  —  Eyes  and  nostrils  appear  on  the  head. 
The  ears  have  no  external  openings.  Another  sense  organ 
of  doubtful  function  is  the  lateral  line  which  extends  though- 
out  the  entire  length  of  the  fish  from  the  gill  cover  on  each 
side. 

Protective  Covering.  —  The  scales,  attached  at  the  forward 
end  and  overlapping  those  behind,  lie  beneath  a  thin  skin 
which  often  contains  pigment. 

Internal  Anatomy.  —  The  drawing  on  page  176  explains 
the  position  of  the  internal  organs  in  the  perch.  These  lie 
in  a  cavity  bounded  dorsally  by  the  backbone,  posteriorly 
by  the  anal  fin,  and  anteriorly  by  the  head. 

Edible  Portion.  —  Along  the  entire  length  of  the  backbone, 
on  each  side,  from  the  head  to  the  tail-fin,  are  to  be  found 
larger  strips  of  muscle  divided  into  sections  or  "flakes." 
This  muscle  is  generally  white  in  color,  such  fish  as  salmon, 
herring,  mackerel,  and  sturgeon  being  exceptions.  The 
muscle  fibres  are  larger  in  the  fish  than  in  any  of  the  other 
vertebrates,  and  have  less  connective  tissue  holding  them 
together.  On  this  account  the  flesh  of  the  fish  is  not  only 
quickly  cooked  but  easily  broken  during  the  process. 

Development.  —  The  sexes  are  as  a  rule  separate.  The 
ovaries  when  ripe  constitute  the  "  roes,"  the  corresponding 
organs  in  the  male  giving  rise  to  the  "  milt."  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  the  sand  or  attached  to  rocks  or  to  water  plants  by 
the  female,  the  male  subsequently  passing  over  them  the 


176 


HANDBOOK  OF  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


FISH  177 

milt  which  fertilizes  them.  Many  eggs  are  laid,  but  many 
are  devoured  long  before  they  are  large  enough  to  escape 
from  the  other  fish  which  feed  upon  them.  The  length  of 
time  taken  in  development  is  very  short,  thereby  insuring 
greater  safety.  The  United  States  Fish  Commission,  by 
artificially  propagating  the  young  fish,  and  then  stocking 
ponds,  streams,  and  bays,  protects  many  fish  from  utter 
annihilation. 

The  eggs  and  milt  are  taken  from  the  mature  fish,  mixed, 
and  then  placed  in  jars  of  water  which  reproduce  as  far  as 
possible  natural  conditions.  Here,  in  the  various  hatcheries 
belonging  to  the  government,  the  young  fish  live  until 
large  enough  to  be  taken  with  safety  to  their  own  natural 
environment.  "  The  product  of  the  shad  fishery  is  to-day  as 
much  a  subject  of  artificial  control  as  the  corn  crops,"  said 
the  late  Hon.  Marshall  McDonald,  the  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Fish  and  Fisheries.  This  statement  would 
apply  equally  to  the  cod  of  the  New  England  coast,  the 
salmon  of  the  Pacific,  and  the  whitefish  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
All  of  these  fisheries  are  preserved  to-day  by  the  labors  of 
the  Fish  Commission. 

Preparation  for  the  Market.  —  As  an  important  article  of 
food,  the  value  of  fish  cannot  be  overestimated.  It  enters 
into  the  diet  of  nearly  every  American  family.  Generally 
speaking,  fish  taken  from  cold,  clear,  deep  water,  with  a 
sandy  or  rocky  bottom,  are  preferable  to  those  taken  from 
warm,  muddy,  shallow  water.  Thus,  most  of  our  important 
fisheries  are  in  our  northern  Atlantic  and  Pacific  states,  and 
in  those  bordering  on  the  great  lakes.  Fish  should  be  killed 
at  once  after  taking  from  the  water,  as,  otherwise,  the  flesh 
becomes  soft  and  does  not  bear  shipment  so  well.  The 
ordinary  method  for  transportation  is  packing  in  ice.  Some- 
times the  organs  are  removed,  or  in  other  words,  the  fish  is 
"  dressed  "  before  packing.  More  frequently,  however,  it  is 


178  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

packed  "  whole."  Fishermen,  as  a  rule,  do  not  use  proper 
care  in  handling  the  fish,  so  that,  when  offered  for  sale  in 
the  city  markets,  it  is  anything  but  attractive.  The  outer 
skin,  from  rough  handling  becoming  injured,  very  soon 
gives  rise  at  those  points  to  decay,  which  rapidly  spreads 
throughout  the  fish. 

Then,  too,  the  internal  organs  probably  begin  to  decom- 
pose very  shortly  after  death,  and  should  therefore  be 
removed  before  shipment.  Bleeding  the  fish  after  capture 
would  also  prevent  rapid  decay.  Direct  contact  with  the 
ice  is  not  the  best  method  of  transportation.  When  the 
proper  precautions  are  taken  in  shipping,  this  important 
article  of  food  will  become  more  attractive,  and  will  then 
assume  a  larger  and  more  important  place  in  our  diet  thj 
at  the  present  time. 

Large  quantities  of  fish  are  preserved  by  drying,  saltinj 
smoking,  and  canning. 

Seasonableness.  —  Most  fish  are  not  seasonable  at  the  tii 
of  spawning,  the  flesh  at  this  time  being  less  firm,  the  nutri- 
tion going  mainly  to  the  reproductive  organs.     Some  fisl 
the  shad  for  example,  are  preferred  at  this  time.     Herri] 
too,  is  captured  usually  at  this  season,  since  at  other  time 
it  is  very  difficult  to  take. 

The   following  list   was   obtained   from  a   Philadelphis 
dealer,  and  represents  the  fish  purchased  by  him  duri] 
each  month  of  the  year. 

JANUARY 

Cod ;  Haddock ;  Hake ;  Black  Bass ;  White  Perch ;  Whit 
Catfish;  Ked  Catfish;  Spotted  Trout;  Ciscoes;  Spott 
Drum ;  Nova  Scotia  Herring ;  Smelts ;  Spanish  Mackerel 
Rockfish;  Halibut;  Sunfish;  Salmon;  Eels;  Green  Pike 
Blue  Pike;  Gray  Pike. 


FISH  179 


FEBRUARY 

Cod;  Hake;  Haddock;  Halibut;  Spotted  Trout;  White 
Perch ;  Nova  Scotia  Herring ;  Ciscoes ;  Smelts  ;  Crokers ; 
Shad;  White  Catfish ;  Red  Catfish;  Rockfish;  Black  Bass ; 
Eels ;  Green  Pike ;  Blue  Pike ;  Gray  Pike ;  Salmon ;  Floun- 
ders. 

MARCH 

Cod  ;  Hake ;  Haddock ;  Halibut ;  Ciscoes ;  Smelts ;  White 
Perch;  Rockfish;  Nova  Scotia  Herring;  Shad;  Spotted 
Trout;  Salmon;  Crokers;  Black  Bass;  Eels;  Flounders; 
White  Catfish ;  Ked  Catfish ;  Green  Pike. 

APRIL 

Cod;  Hake;  Haddock;  Halibut;  Shad;  White  Perch; 
Yellow  Perch;  Rockfish;  Eels;  White  and  Red  Catfish; 
Flounders;  Salmon;  Crokers;  Bluefish;  Weakfish;  Dela- 
ware Herring;  Sheephead;  Cape  May  Goodies;  Sturgeon; 
Porgy ;  Butterfish. 

MAY 

Shad ;  Delaware  Herring :  Hake ;  Cod ;  Haddock ;  Rock- 
fish;  White  Perch;  Yellow  Perch;  Bluefish;  Weakfish; 
Sturgeon ;  Porgie ;  Flounders ;  Red  Drum ;  Black  Drum  ; 
Crokers;  Cape  May  Goodies;  Sheephead;  Eels;  Red  and 
White  Catfish ;  Halibut ;  Salmon ;  Spanish  Mackerel ;  Butter- 
fish. 

JUNE 

Same  as  May,  with  addition  of  Sea  Bass ;  Kingfish ;  Black- 
fish. 

JULY 
Same  as  June,  but  no  Shad  or  Delaware  Herring. 


180  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

AUGUST 
Same  as  July,  but  no  Sturgeon. 

SEPTEMBER 

Same  as  August,  with  addition  of  Ciscoes ;  Kound  Mack- 
erel; Whitefish. 

OCTOBER 
Same  as  September. 

NOVEMBER 
Same  as  October,  but  no  Porgies,  Blackfish,  or  Kingfish. 

DECEMBER 

Same  as  November,  but  no  Black  Drum,  Eed  Drum, 
Butterfish,  or  Cape  May  Goodies;  with  addition  of  Blue 
Pike ;  Spotted  Drum. 

Kinds  of  Fish.  —  If  Chart  I  be  examined,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  amount  of  oil  contained  in  the  flesh  of 
the  fish  varies,  thus  giving  rise  to  two  classes,  the  dry 
or  white  fish,  like  the  cod,  haddock,  and  bluefish,  and  the 
oily  fish,  salmon,  mackerel,  and  shad.  It  is  the  oil  which 
imparts  to  these  fish  their  characteristic  flavor.  Halibut 
falls  between  the  two  classes. 

The  dry  fishes,  owing  to  lack  of  flavor,  require,  in  cook- 
ing, seasoning  and  rich  sauces. 

Nutritive  Value  of  Fish. — In  Chart  II  fish  is  compared 
with  other  common  foods,  as  regards  amount  of  nutrients. 
Like  beef  and  mutton,  it  will  be  seen  that  fish  is  rich  in  the 
nitrogenous  principle,  proteid,  and  should  hold  the  same 
place  in  our  diet  as  these ;  that  is,  it  should  be  accompanied 
by  foods  rich  in  carbohydrates,  as  potatoes,  bread,  and  the 
like,  and  served  with  a  thickened  sauce.  Fish  is,  also, 
stuffed,  thus  adding  the  carbohydrate  element. 


FISH 


181 


Proteid 


Ale-wife, 

Bass,  black, dressed . 
tf  sea,  rt  _  _ 
A  striped,  « 

Bluefcl*  «, 

Cod,  <*__ 


Haddock,         « 

Mullet,  « 

Perch,  white,  « 

Pickerel,          « 

Fike,  "___ 

Pollock,          « 

Porgy,  <.___. 

Smult,  whole  "_ 
Sturgeon,   dressed. 

Tomcod,  "  _ 
Trout,  brook 
Weak  fish, 
mitefish, 


Halibut,  f.'_. 

Herring,  whole  __ 
Mackerel,  dressed. 
«  Spanish  «_ 
Salmon,  Maine  u. 
Shad, 

Trout,  lake,      "_ 
"Burbot.  «_ 


_L_L 


i     I 


1       -•:  -J 


CHART  I.  — SHOWING  RELATIVE  FOOD  VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT 
VARIETIES  OF  FISH 


182 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


General  average  of  fish 

Beef,  side  medium  fat 

Veal,  side 

Mutton,  ride 

Chicken — 


Milk 

Oysters 

Beans,  dried-. 

Potato 

Corn,  canned  _ 
Salad  greens- 


_JL 


CHART  II.  —  SHOWING  RELATIVE  FOOD  VALUE  OF  FISH  AND  OTHER 

FOODS 


1  Pound 


2  Pounds 


CHART  III.  — SHOWING  AMOUNTS  OF  PROTEID  TO  BE  OBTAINED  FOR 
ONE  DOLLAR,  IN  DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  FOOD 


FISH  183 

From  the  side  of  economy,  fish  also  holds  its  own.  Chart 
III  shows  the  amount  of  proteid  which  one  dollar  will 
buy  in  various  forms  of  food.  It  will  be  seen  that  fresh  fish 
falls  between  the  expensive  and  the  cheaper  meats,  the 
salted  and  canned  fish  approaching  more  nearly  the  latter. 

NOTE.  — The  teacher  is  strongly  recommended  to  copy  and  enlarge 
these  charts,  that  the  pupils  may  discover  these  points  for  themselves. 

Digestibility  of  Fish.  —  The  question  of  digestibility  is 
always  important  in  estimating  the  food  value  of  any 
article.  An  analysis  may  show  that  a  food  is  rich  in 
proteid,  and  yet,  if  a  considerable  portion  of  that  proteid 
pass  through  the  alimentary  canal  undigested,  its  value 
is  very  much  impaired.  •  As  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  fish 
and  lean  meat  seem  to  be  about  equally  digestible.  Just  as 
leaner  meats  are  more  easily  digested  than  the  fatter  kinds, 
probably  the  white  or  dry  fishes  are  more  easily  digested 
than  the  oily,  as  shad,  mackerel,  and  salmon. 

Dangers  from  eating  Fish. — Probably  these  are  no  greater 
than  for  meat.  Like  meat,  the  flesh  of  the  fish  may  contain 
parasites ;  and  if  not  perfectly  fresh,  it  may,  like  meat,  con- 
tain the  resulting  compounds  of  bacterial  decomposition, 
the  ptomaines.  If  thoroughly  cooked,  the  danger  from 
parasites  is  eliminated;  and  if  only  fresh  fish  is  used,  the 
danger  from  bacterial  poisoning  disappears.  To  insure  the 
latter  condition,  great  care  should  be  used  in  preparing  fish 
for  the  market,  and  it  should  be  eaten  as  soon  after  capture 
as  possible.  Canned  fish  should  always  be  used  at  once 
after  opening. 

Selection  of  Fish  at  the  Market.  —  A  fresh  fish  always 
has  the  eyes  clear,  the  scales  brilliant,  the  gills  a  vivid 
red  color,  and  the  body  stiff,  leaving  no  mark  when  pressed 
by  the  finger. 

To  scale  the  Fish.  —  After  rinsing  in  cold  salted  water, 


184  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

lay  the  fish  on  the  side,  firmly  grasp  the  tail,  and  with  a 
sharp  knife  remove  the  scales  by  scraping  from  the  tail 
towards  the  head.  Rinse  the  knife  frequently  in  cold 
water  to  remove  the  scales. 

Cleaning  the  Fish.  —  This  should  be  done  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. Eest  it  on  the  back  and  cut  on  the  ventral  side 
from  the  anus  forward  to  a  point  between  the  gills.  This 
exposes  the  whole  body  cavity,  containing  the  internal 
organs.  Remove  all  of  these,  taking  great  care  not  to 
break  the  gall  sac  (see  drawing).  The  kidneys  lying 
directly  under  the  backbone  must  be  scraped  away.  Wash 
quickly,  not  allowing  it  to  soak,  wipe  out  with  a  clean 
towel,  and  if  not  to  be  used  at  once,  sprinkle  a  little  salt  on, 
and  put  away  in  a  cool  place.  .  v; 

Methods  of  Cooking.  —  The  rules  for  the  cooking  of  meat 
apply  here  for  the  fish.  During  the  process  of  cooking, 
fish,  while  retaining  probably  most  of  its  oil  and  proteid, 
loses  a  large  amount  of  water,  thus  becoming  much  drier. 
For  this  reason  a  sauce  generally  accompanies  the  fish 
when  served. 

Boiling.  —  (See  chapter  on  Methods  of  Cooking.)  Salt 
and  an  acid,  such  as  vinegar  or  lemon,  coagulate  albumen, 
and  are  therefore  frequently  added  to  the  water.  Besides 
this,  salt  also  raises  the  temperature  of  the  water  slightly. 
Since  the  fish  is  so  easily  broken,  the  water  should  never 
actively  boil  after  the  fish  has  been  added  to  it. 

To  boil  Cod. — For  boiling,  the  head  and  tail  should  be 
removed.  Wash  the  fish  and  remove  the  black  skin  by 
placing  in  a  pan  of  boiling  water  for  two  or  three  minutes. 
The  skin  can  then  be  scraped  off.  Place  the  fish  on  a  lifter 
or  wrap  it  in  a  piece  of  cheese  cloth.  Put  it  in  the  kettle 
with  enough  boiling  water  to  cover  it,  to  which  has  been 
added  1  tablespoon  of  salt,  1  tablespoon  of  vinegar  or  lemon 
juice,  3  cloves,  3  peppercorns,  1  bay  leaf,  1  small  onion  and 


FISH  185 

carrot  sliced.  Simmer,  allowing  ten  minutes  to  the  pound. 
Before  serving  let  the  fish  remain  five  minutes  in  the  water 
to  "improve,"  that  is  to  absorb  more  of  the  seasoning. 

To  serve  the  Fish. — Arrange  a  napkin  on  the  platter 
and  place  the  fish  upon  it.  Garnish  with  hard  boiled  eggs, 
or  lemon,  and  parsley.  Serve  with  boiled  fish  either  egg  or 
Hollandaise  sauce. 

Egg  Sauce.  —  J  cup  butter,  1  tablespoon  flour,  ^  teaspoon 
salt,  -J  pint  boiling  water,  3  hard  boiled  eggs.  Mix  the 
butter,  flour,  and  salt,  add  the  water,  boil  up  once  and  re- 
move from  the  fire.  Add  the  eggs  chopped. 

To  fry  Small  Fish.  —  The  head  and  tail  are  not  removed 
in  small  fish.  Dry  the  fish  thoroughly,  dust  with  salt  and 
pepper,  and  roll  in  flour  or  crumbs,  then  in  egg,  and  in 
crumbs  again.  Drop  them  into  deep  hot  fat,  or  place  first 
in  frying  basket,  and  then  lower  into  the  fat.  The  length 
of  time  needed  to  cook  thoroughly  depends  upon  the  size  of 
the  fish.  Smelts  take  about  four  minutes,  larger  fish  a 
longer  time. 

To  serve  Fried  Fish.  —  Allow  all  the  fat  to  drain  from 
the  fish,  then  serve,  garnishing  with  slices  of  lemon  and 
parsley. 

Baking. — In  baking,  the  fish  is  cooked  in  its  own  juices, 
the  heating  medium  being  mainly  hot  air.  In  this  method 
of  cooking  considerable  evaporation  of  the  juices  takes 
place  from  the  outer  surface.  To  prevent  the  fish  from 
becoming  too  dry,  therefore,  it  has  to  be  frequently 
"basted"  with  the  juices  coming  from  it,  and  with  the 
fat  which  has  been  added.  By  thus  forming  a  coating  of 
fat  over  the  surface  more  of  the  juices  are  retained.  The 
high  temperature  of  the  oven  causes  a  certain  amount  of 
browning,  as  in  frying,  which  adds  greatly  to  the  flavor. 

In  baked  fish  probably  a  large  amount  of  water  is  driven 
off,  thus  concentrating  somewhat  the  extractives,  thereby 


186  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

imparting  a  stronger  flavor  than  in  boiled,  or  even  fried  fish. 
Dry  fishes  need  the  addition  of  fat  in  baking. 

To  bake  Cod.  —  This  rule  applies  equally  to  haddock,  blue- 
fish,  bass,  or  shad.  Allow  fifteen  minutes  to  a  pound.  Kub 
the  fish  with  salt  and  pepper,  stuff  it,  and  sew  it  up. 

Stuffing.  —  1  cup  bread  crumbs,  3  tablespoons  butter,  J 
teaspoon  salt,  ^  teaspoon  pepper,  1  teaspoon  chopped  onion, 
1  teaspoon  chopped  pickles,  1  teaspoon  chopped  parsley. 
Melt  the  butter,  and  stir  in  the  other  ingredients.  This  is 
enough  for  a  four-pound  cod. 

The  head  and  tail  should  not  be  removed,  but  should  be 
wrapped  in  greased  paper  to  retain  their  shape  so  far  as 
possible.  Brush  the  fish  over  with  lemon  juice.  Cut  gashes 
across  the  fish  on  each  side  about  three  inches  apart,  into 
which  insert  strips  of  salt  pork.  Grease  a  fish  sheet  with  a 
piece  of  pork,  place  the  fish  on  it,  and  put  into  an  uncovered 
roasting  pan,  with  the  pork  around  it.  Bake  quickly,  bast- 
ing every  ten  minutes  with  the  fat  in  the  pan,  not  omitting 
the  paper  covering  the  head  and  tail. 

To  serve  the  Baked  Fish.  —  Garnish  with  plenty  of  parsley 
or  watercress,  in  order  to  partially  conceal  the  head  and  tail. 
Use  also  slices  of  lemon.  The  sauce  may  be  poured  around 
the  fish  or  served  separately. 

Brown  Sauce.  —  1  cup  hot  beef  stock,  or  1  cup  boiling 
water,  and  ^  teaspoon  beef  extract  dissolved  in  it.  2  table- 
spoons melted  butter,  1  heaping  tablespoon  flour,  J  teaspoon 
salt,  1  slice  onion.  Melt  the  butter,  and  brown  the  slice 
of  onion  in  it.  Remove  onion,  and  let  the  butter  become 
well  browned.  Then  add  to  it  the  flour  and  gradually  the 
bouillon.  Stir  and  cook  a  few  minutes;  add  the  salt  and 
a  dash  of  pepper. 

To  broil  Fish.  —  Small  fish  are  broiled  whole ;  cod,  had- 
dock, if  large,  as  well  as  halibut  and  salmon,  are  best  cut  in 
slices.  Medium  sized  fishes,  as  shad,  bluefish,  mackerel,  and 


FISH  187 

trout,  should  be  split  down  the  back  and  have  head  and  tail 
removed.  Heat  the  broiler,  and  grease.  Flour  or  butter 
the  fish  to  prevent  sticking. 

Broiled  Cod.  —  Take  slices  about  one  inch  thick,  .season 
with  salt  and  pepper,  and  dredge  with  flour.  Broil  twelve 
minutes.  Serve  with  butter  sauce  and  garnish  with  parsley. 

Butter  Sauce.  — |  cup  butter,  juice  %  lemon,  |  tablespoon 
chopped  parsley,  1  saltspoon  salt,  pepper.  Cream  the  butter 
until  foamy  and  light,  add  lemon  juice,  parsley,  salt,  and 
pepper.  Spread  over  fish  as  soon  as  it  is  broiled. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  LESSONS 
(Two  hours  each) 
ITiKST  LESSON 

1.  Selection  of  fish  at  the  market. 

2.  Anatomy:  external  and  internal,  edible  and  non-edible 

portions,  structure  and  composition  of  edible  portion. 

3.  Clean  the  fish. 

4.  Boil  the  fish. 

5.  Method  of  serving. 

6.  Sauce. 

If  possible  at  this  time,  take  the  fish  as  the  subject  of 
nature  lessons,  using  the  fish  in  the  schoolroom  aquaria. 
The  explanation  of  the  subjects  here  indicated  is  given  under 
essentially  the  same  headings  in  the  preceding  pages  of  this 
chapter.  Use  cod  or  haddock,  the  size  depending  upon  the 
size  of  the  class.  After  cleaning  the  fish,  cut  into  small 
pieces,  giving  each  pupil  three  pieces. 

Questions  and  Directions  for  Pupils.  — Examine  the  piece  of 
uncooked  fish.  How  does  the  flesh  of  fish  resemble  that  of 
beef  or  mutton  ? 

How  does  it  differ  from  it  ? 


188  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

Have  three  small  stewpans,  one  containing  cold  water ;  a 
second,  water  at  the  point  of  boiling ;  a  third,  water  at  the 
boiling  point,  to  which  has  been  added  a  half  teaspoonf  ul  of 
salt,  a  half  teaspoonful  vinegar,  one  clove,  one  peppercorn, 
a  half  bay  leaf,  a  slice  of  onion  and  carrot. 

Into  each  stewpan  place  at  the  same  time  a  piece  of  fish. 
Allow  the  one  in  cold  water  to  come  to  the  boiling  point, 
keeping  it  at  that  temperature  about  eight  minutes.  Keep 
the  other  two  at  the  boiling  point,  but  not  actively  boiling, 
for  about  eight  minutes  also. 

What  differences  did  you  observe  in  the  three  pieces  as 
they  were  immersed  ? 

What  caused  these  differences  ? 

What  appeared  on  the  water  in  the  first  stewpan? 
What  was  the  cause  of  this  ? 

Why  was  the  vinegar  and  salt  added  to  the  third  ? 

Why  was  the  clove,  peppercorn,  etc. 

Taste  each  piece,  and  decide  which  is  the  best  method  to 
use  in  boiling  a  fish. 

Why  should  the  water  not  boil  vigorously  ? 

Why  is  a  fish  wrapped  in  cloth  when  boiled  ? 

Dictate  to  the  class  the  rule  for  boiling  a  fish ;  also  the 
sauce  to  serve  with  it,  and  method  of  serving.  Let  each 
child  then  make  the  sauce  according  to  the  following  indi- 
vidual rule. 

Egg  Sauce  (Individual).  —  1  tablespoon  butter,  ^  table- 
spoon flour,  ^  teaspoon  salt,  1  gill  boiling  water,  ^  hard  boiled 
egg.  Mix  butter  and  flour  together,  add  water  gradually, 
stirring  all  the  time.  When  it  thickens,  take  from  the  fire 
and  add  the  egg  chopped  fine. 

SECOND  LESSON 

1.  Nutritive  value  of  different  kinds  of  fish  (Chart  I). 

2.  Dry  and  oily  fish  (Chart  I). 


FISH  189 


3.  Frying  fish. 

4.  Uses  of  left-over  fish :  cream  fish. 


The  chart,  copied  and  enlarged,  should  be  hung  on  the 
wall  where  the  pupils  can  all  see  it  clearly.  After  explain- 
ing which  tint  or  color  stands  for  proteid,  and  which  for 
fat,  let  them  discover  the  two  kinds  of  fish,  dry  and  oily, 
having,  if  possible,  the  two  kinds  to  show  to  them.  Canned 
salmon  will  serve  for  the  oily  fish.  Discuss  the  differences 
in  flavor  in  the  two  varieties. 

Let  each  child  then  prepare  a  small  fish,  smelt  or  perch, 
for  frying.  This  will  review  the  last  lesson  on  cleaning, 
and  give  each  child  an  opportunity  to  put  into  practice 
that  which  was  before  demonstrated  by  the  teacher.  Point 
out  the  differences  between  frying  and  so-called  frying,  or 
sauteing. 

•  Questions  to  Suggest.  —  Why  should  a  deep  kettle  be  used 
in  frying  ? 

How  do  you  know  when  the  fat  is  sufficiently  heated  for 
frying  the  fish  ? 

What  difference  do  you  observe  between  immersing  in  hot 
fat  and  in  hot  water  ? 

What  is  the  cause  of  the  spluttering  when  the  fish  is  im- 
mersed ? 

How  does  the  fish  change  in  appearance  ?    Why  ? 

What  is  "  browning  "  ? 

Why  was  no  crust  formed  on  the  boiled  fish  ? 

Note  the  difference  in  taste  between  the  boiled  and  fried 
fish. 

Uses  of  Left-over  Fish.  —  The  teacher  may  use  any  rule 
here  that  she  may  prefer.  The  following  recipe  is  given  in 
both  the  large  and  the  individual  rule,  and  is  recommended 
for  cold  boiled  fish. 

Fish  a  la  Creme.  —  1  tablespoon  butter,  1  tablespoon  flour, 


190  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 


1  cup  hot  milk,  in  which  ^  bay  leaf  and  1  slice  onion  ha 
been  simmering,  ^  teaspoon  salt,  pepper,  yolk  of  1  egg 
cups  cold  flaked  fish. 

Melt  butter  till  it  bubbles.  Stir  in  the  flour,  and  add  the 
milk  gradually.  Stir  until  perfectly  smooth;  add  a  few 
grains  pepper  and  the  salt.  Remove  from  the  fire,  and  add 
the  beaten  yolk  of  an  egg,  to  which  a  tablespoon  of  cold  milk 
has  been  added  to  prevent  coagulation.  Pour  this  sauce 
over  the  cold  flaked  fish ;  put  into  a  baking  dish,  sprinkle 
with  a  little  salt  and  pepper,  and  cover  with  bread  crumbs. 
Bake  in  a  hot  oven  until  brown. 

Individual  Rule.  —  J  teaspoon  butter,  \  teaspoon  flour,  J 
cup  hot  milk,  -J-  bay  leaf,  J  slice  onion,  ^  yolk  of  an  egg,  ^ 
cup  cold  flaked  fish,  pepper  and  salt. 

Put  the  piece  of  bay  leaf  and  onion  in  the  cold  milk,  and 
let  it  remain  until  the  milk  is  hot.  Bake  in  scallop  shells. 

/  • 

THIRD  LESSON 

1.  Digestibility  of  fish. 

2.  Value   of   fish   as    food.      Compare    with    otner    foods 

(Charts  II  and  III). 

3.  Necessity  for  seasoning  most  fish. 

4.  Baking  fish. 

5.  Stuffing. 

6.  Sauce. 

Let  each  child  again  make  use  of  a  small  fish,  smelt  or 
perch.  The  object  in  this  lesson  is  to  give  each  one  an  op- 
portunity to  learn  the  technique  by  doing  the  work  for  her- 
self from  the  beginning.  Small  fish  accomplish  this  end  as 
well  as  large,  and,  at  the  same  time,  reduce  the  expense. 
The  individual  rule  for  stuffing  may  be  more  than  enough 
for  a  very  small  fish  like  a  smelt. 

After  stuffing  the  fish,  sew  it,  and  follow  the  same  di- 


FISH  191 


rections  as  used  in  the  large  fish,  care  being  taken  in  slash- 
ing to  have  the  gashes  on  opposite  sides  alternate.  All  the 
fish  may  then  be  baked  together  in  a  large  baking  pan,  each 
student's  name  being  attached  to  her  fish.  Some  extra 
strips  of  pork  must  be  placed  in  the  pan. 

While  the  fish  is  baking,  let  each  one  make  the  sauce,  and 
prepare  the  lemon  and  parsley  for  garnishing,  not  omitting, 
however,  the  basting  of  the  fish. 

Questions.  —  How  is  the  heat  applied  in  baking  ? 

How  does  this  differ  from  frying  ?     From  boiling  ? 

In  baking  the  fish,  why  is  it  necessary  to  continually 
baste  it  ? 

Why  is  the  pork  used  ? 

What  is  gained  by  stuffing  the  fish  ? 

Brown  Sauce.  —  (For  individual  rule  see  Sauces  in  chapter 
on  Starchy  Foods.) 

FOURTH  LESSON 

1.  Propagation  of  fish.     Work  of  United  States  Fish  Com- 

mission.    (See  Development.) 

2.  Season  of  fish.     (List  of  months.) 

3.  Dangers  from  eating  fish. 

4.  Broiling  fish. 

5.  Sauce. 

6.  Serving. 

In  this  lesson  either  let  each  pupil  broil  a  slice  of  cod,  and 
also  a  smelt,  or  let  half  the  class  use  one  fish,  the  other  half 
the  second.  The  directions  for  broiling  cod  have  already 
been  given. 

To  Broil  a  Smelt.  —  This  is  used  to  show  the  method  used 
in  medium  sized  and  small  fishes.  Split  the  smelt  down  the 
back  and  remove  the  backbone.  Place  upon  a  hot  greased 
broiler,  and  broil  over  hot  coals  a  very  few  minutes. 


192  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Questions.  —  What  is  "  broiling  "  ? 

Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  the  coals  glowing  ? 

Why  should  a  crust  be  formed  quickly  on  both  sides  ? 

What  causes  the  puffy  appearance  of  the  fish  ? 

Butter  Sauce  (Individual  Rule). — 1  tablespoon  butter,  £ 
teaspoon  lemon  juice,  %  teaspoon  chopped  parsley,  ^  salt- 
spoon  salt,  pepper. 

Kub  and  beat  butter  until  light  and  foamy.  Add  lemon 
juice  and  parsley,  salt,  and  a  few  grains  pepper.  Spread  on 
the  fish  when  it  comes  from  the  broiler. 


OYSTERS 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

General:  Life  and  Her  Children,  Arabella  Buckley;  Riverside 
Natural  History.  Technical :  The  Oyster,  W.  K.  Brooks  ;  First  Book 
of  Zoology,  Morse ;  Oyster,  Clam,  and  Other  Common  Mollusks,  Hyatt. 
Propagation:  Oysters  and  Method  Culture,  Bulletin  of  U.S.  Fish 
Commissioner;  also,  Lippincott,  vol.  59,  p.  536 ;  Scribner,  vol.  10, 
p.  469. 

We  have  only  to  look  at  those  massive  heaps  of  shells 
left  here  and  there  along  our  shores  or  river  banks  to  realize 
that  man's  fondness  for  the  oyster  is  very  ancient.  Wherever 
the  mollusk  flourished  the  debris  from  the  feasts  tells  of  the 
enormous  number  consumed.  Of  all  mollusks  the  oyster  is 
the  favorite.  When  the  settlers  reached  these  shores  the 
oyster  industry  was  very  active,  the  Indians  near  the  shore 
catching  them  and  selling  them  to  those  living  farther  in- 
land. 

As  the  inhabitants  increased,  and  towns  sprang  up,  the 
oysters  began  to  diminish  in  number  until  many  beds  were 
completely  destroyed.  The  increasing  scarcity  finally  led 
oystermeii  to  increase  the  area  of  the  natural  beds,  or  to 
plant  new  ones,  and  place  the  young  oysters  upon  them. 


OYSTERS 


193 


Anatomy  of  Oyster.  —  The  oyster,  together  with  the 
clam,  mussel,  and  scallop,  belongs  to  the  group  of  inverte- 
brate animals,  mollusca,  which  means  soft  bodies.  The 
oyster  has  no  distinct  head,  nor  even  a  foot  for  digging,  as 


--A-X — REPBODUCTIVE  GLAND 


HEART 


ANUS 


..GENITAL  OPENING 
.  MTTSCLE 


has  the  clam.  Its  soft  body  is  enclosed  by  a  fold  of  mem- 
brane known  as  the  mantle,  which  secretes  a  shell  made  up 
of  two  valves.  These  valves  are  held  together  by  a  very 
strong  muscle,  the  position  of  which  is  shown  in  the  large 


194  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

blue  spot,  frequently  called  the  eye,  on  the  inside  of  each 
shell. 

Since  the  oyster  always  remains  attached  after  its  larval 
life,  it  has  no  organs  for  locomotion;  and  since  it  always 
rests  upon  one  valve,  that  valve  becomes  deeper  than  the 
upper  one,  which  then  acts  as  a  cover.  This  cover  is  left 
open,  that  the  water  may  pass  over  the  gills  and  also  to  the 
mouth,  situated  near  the  hinge,  where  four  palps  carry  the 
food  into  the  opening,  and  thus  into  the  alimentary  canal. 
When  danger  threatens,  the  cover  is  instantly  closed.  Even 
this,  however,  is  not  proof  against  the  oyster's  enemies. 
Chief  among  these  is  perhaps  the  starfish. 

Planted  Beds.  — In  the  natural  beds  there  is  always  a  great 
deal  of  crowding.  Many  oysters  die  because  with  the  growth 
of  those  next  to  them  it  becomes  impossible  for  them  to 
open  the  shell.  By  spreading  oyster  shells  near  the  natural 
bed,  the  area  of  the  latter  is  increased.  The  "  spat "  at- 
taching themselves  to  these  shells  prevent  crowding  on  the 
old  bed,  and  very  much  increase  the  yield. 

"  Seed "  oysters  are  young  oysters  varying  in  size  from 
one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length.  The  raising  of 
'"seed"  oysters  is  known  as  "farming."  The  chief  source 
of  the  seed  on  our  coast  is  the  Chesapeake  and  the  Con- 
necticut shore,  the  latter  sending  large  quantities  to  Europe. 

The  seed  is  planted  mainly  along  the  whole  New  England 
ceast,  Long  Island  Sound,  New  York  Bay,  and  Delaware 
Bay.  It  is  now  being  extended  farther  south,  and  even 
along  our  southern  shores  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  v  - 

Preparation  for  the  Market.  —  It  is  customary  to  eschew 
oysters  during  the  months  which  possess  no  "r"  in  their 
name,  since  during  these  months  the  eggs  are  developing 
and  being  discharged.  The  sexes  are  separate  in  the  oyster 
of  our  eastern  coast.  The  reproductive  glands,  when  filled 
with  the  ripe  generative  cells,  stand  out  on  each  side  of 


OYSTERS  195 

the  body  as  large  white  masses.  Dr.  Brooks  has  estimated 
that  a  medium  sized  Maryland  oyster  will  discharge  an- 
nually sixteen  million  eggs. 

Many  oystermen  transplant  the  oysters  from  muddy  to 
gravelly  beds  for  a  few  months,  in  order  to  rid  the  intestine 
of  all  mud  taken  in  with  the  food.  Then,  too,  just  before 
bringing  to  market  the  oysters  are  placed  in  brackish  water 
to  "  fatten,"  since  a  higher  price  can  be  obtained  generally 
for  oysters  thus  treated.  By  this  process  the  oysters  gain 
in  weight  probably  by  absorption  of  water  into  the  tissues, 
but  lose  a  small  amount  of  nutrients. 

Sometimes  oysters  acquire  a  green  coloration,  due  to  cer- 
tain vegetable  organisms  upon  which  they  have  fed,  the 
green  color  being  especially  noticeable  in  the  gills.  This 
does  not  in  any  way  injure  the  oyster,  which  as  a  rule  is 
plump  and  round  from  the  abundance  of  food.  In  Europe 
the  green  oysters  are  very  much  prized. 

Owing  to  the  close  fit  of  the  edges  of  the  shells,  oysters 
will  live  a  long  time  out  of  water,  and  in  this  condition  may 
be  transported  long  distances  in  barrels  or  sacks. 

The  size  of  the  oyster  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  its 
age.  Most  small  oysters  receive  the  name  "  Blue  Points," 
although  very  few  of  them  probably  are  from  Long  Island. 

Nutritive  Value.  —  From  the  chart  it  will  be  seen  that 
oysters  contain  about  the  same  amount  of  nutrition  as  an 
equal  amount  of  milk,  that  is  one  quart  of  oysters  would 
about  equal  one  quart  of  milk.  As  an  article  of  food  they 
are  expensive,  and  must  be  regarded  as  a  luxury.  Un- 
cooked and  with  the  gills  removed  they  are  easily  digested. 

Preparation  for  Cooking.  —  Pour  half  a  cup  of  cold  water 
over  one  quart  of  oysters,  and  with  clean  hands  take  them 
out  separately,  removing  any  bits  of  shell  or  seaweed.  The 
small  crabs,  frequently  found  with  the  oysters,  are  very 
delicate  morsels,  and  should  be  cooked  with  the  oysters. 


196  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

The  oyster  liquor  is  seldom  used,  since  so  much  comes  from 
the  oysters  while  cooking.  If  it  is  desired,  however,  it 
should  be  strained  before  using. 

Oyster  Soup.  —  1  quart  oysters,  1  pint  milk,  1  tablespoon 
butter,  2  tablespoons  flour,  salt  to  taste,  ^  saltspoon  pepper, 
two  pieces  celery. 

Heat  the  milk  and  celery  in  a  double  boiler  while  you 
prepare  the  oysters.  (Directions  already  given.)  Strain 
the  oyster  liquor  through  the  finest  strainer.  Put  on  to 
boil.  Eemove  the  scum,  and  when  clear  add  the  oysters. 
Let  them  simmer  until  they  begin  to  grow  plump  and  the 
edges  curl  or  separate.  Strain  the  liquor  into  the  milk,  put 
the  oysters  where  they  will  keep  hot  but  not  cook.  Melt 
the  butter,  stir  in  the  flour  while  bubbling,  and  add  the  milk 
gradually.  Boil  three  or  four  minutes.  Eemove  from  the 
fire,  add  the  oysters,  and  serve  very  hot. 

Oyster  Stew  is  made  like  oyster  soup  without  the  thick- 
ening. 

Creamed  Oysters  are  made  in  very  much  the  same  way. 
A  cream  sauce  is  first  made,  and  the  oysters,  after  parboiling, 
are  added  to  it.  These  may  be  served  on  toast  or  in  pattie 
shells. 

LESSON 

1.  Anatomy  of  the  Oyster. 

2.  Food  of  Oyster. 

3.  Enemies  of  the  Oyster. 

4.  Oyster  Beds  —  Natural  and  Planted. 

5.  Preparation  for  the  Market.     Position  of  Most  Exten- 

sive Beds. 

6.  Nutritive  Value. 

7.  Preparation  for  Cooking. 

8.  Oyster  Soup.     Oyster  Stew.     Creamed  Oysters. 


SALADS  197 

Method.  —  Let  each  pupil  have  an  oyster,  from  which  the 
flat  (right)  valve  has  been  removed,  so  that  it  rests  on  the 
deep  (left)  valve.  Place  a  drawing  of  the  anatomy  upon 
the  board  and  go  over  it  with  the  specimens  before  them. 
If  other  mollusks  have  been  taken,  compare.  Take,  then, 
the  subjects  indicated  in  the  above  outline.  Use  the  indi- 
vidual rules  given  below. 

Oyster  Soup  (Individual  Eule).  —  3  oysters,  £  cup  milk,  2 
tablespoons  oyster  liquor,  1  level  teaspoon  flour,  1  teaspoon 
butter  (slightly  rounded),  1  saltspoon  salt,  speck  of  white 
pepper,  2  inch  piece  of  celery. 

/ 

SALADS 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chambers' s  Journal,  vol.  60,  p.  315.  Olives,  Encyclopsedia  Brit- 
annica;  Overland,  vol.  21,  p.  278;  vol.  18,  p.  420;  Bulletin  of  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Olive  Culture  in  the  United  States. 

Food  Value  of  Salad. — No  dinner  is  complete  without  a 
salad,  and  only  on  the  score  of  lack  of  time  should  it  be 
omitted.  The  number  of  possible  salads  is  legion.  A  salad, 
as  a  rule,  has  three  good  qualities :  it  is  healthful,  it  may  be 
economical,  and  also  very  attractive.  It  is  healthful  in  that 
it  adds  to  our  diet  the  fresh,  green,  uncooked  vegetables,  and 
a  mild  acid,  both  of  which  are  especially  beneficial.  In 
cooking  vegetables,  much  mineral  matter  is  lost  which  is  of 
course  retained  in  the  uncooked  greens  of  the  salad. 

Economy.  —  It  is  economical,  since  in  a  salad  we  may 
make  use  of  left-over  portions.  There  is  scarcely  any  meat  or 
vegetable  left  from  dinner  that  cannot  be  used  in  this  way. 

It  is  hard  to  realize  what  a  close  connection  exists 
between  the  eye  and  the  digestive  organs,  but  an  attractive, 
well-served  dish  adds  very  materially  to  one's  appetite  and 


198  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

to  one's  digestive  powers.  A  well-made  salad  is  the  most 
attractive  part  of  the  dinner. 

Greens  used  for  Salads.  —  In  plants,  the  cell  wall  is  a  much 
harder,  firmer  substance  than  that  of  animal  tissue.  It  is 
known  as  cellulose,  and  is,  chemically,  closely  related  to 
starch,  belonging  to  the  class  of  compounds,  carbohydrates. 
This  cellulose  differs  markedly  in  its  physical  character- 
istics. Thus  in  the  potato  it  is  loose  and  spongy,  in  celery 
much  tougher  and  elastic,  in  wood  it  becomes  very  compact, 
and  in  the  shells  of  nuts  extremely  hard.  Cooking  softens 
this  cellulose  wall. 

Since  age  increases  the  amount  and  the  toughness  of  the 
cellulose  wall,  only  young  plants  should  be  used  in  salads. 
The  list  of  plants  used  is  a  large  one.  Most  of  them  have 
been  known  and  cultivated  for  this  purpose  for  centuries, 
originating  probably  in  the  Eastern  countries.  We  read  of 
them  in  Greek  and  Roman  writings,  serving  the  same  pur- 
pose as  at  the  present  day. 

Cultivated  herbs,  lettuces,  escarole,  chicory,  endive,  celery, 
nasturtium,  and  wild  greens,  watercress,  dandelion,  daisy, 
mustard,  and  peppergrass,  constitute  the  plants  most  used 
at  the  present  day. 

Variety  of  Salads.  —  So  large  is  the  list  of  possible  salads, 
that  one  knows  scarcely  which  to  select.  Almost  any  vege- 
table, meat,  or  fish  may  be  made  into  a  salad. 

For  convenience  they  may  be  divided  into  four  grades : 

First  ;  those  made  from  the  herbs,  cultivated  or  wild, 
given  in  the  above  list.  These  are,  of  course,  uncooked,  and 
may  be  used  alone  or  combined  with  lettuce.  They  are 
served  as  a  rule  with  a  French  dressing. 

Second  ;  salads  made  with  lettuce  as  a  foundation,  and 
uncooked  fruits  or  vegetables,  as,  apple,  nut  and  apple, 
orange,  banana,  apple  and  celery,  tomato  and  cucumber.  A 
mayonnaise  dressing  is  generally  used  in  these  salads. 


SALADS  199 

Third  ;  salads  made  with  lettuce  as  a  foundation,  and  a 
cooked  vegetable,  as  potato,  asparagus,  beet,  cauliflower,  rice, 
and  bean.  Mayonnaise  or  French  dressing  is  used. 

Fourth  ;  salads  made  with  lettuce  or  celery  as  a  founda- 
tion, and  meat,  fish,  or  egg.  Mayonnaise  is  served  with  all 
of  these  salads. 

Preparation  of  Greens.  —  These  should  be  as  fresh  and  crisp 
as  possible.  To  keep  them  in  this  condition  until  needed, 
place  them  in  very  cold  water.  If  the  ends  of  the  stems 
are  cut,  and  a  little  salt  added  to  the  water,  they  will  revive 
more  rapidly.  They  should  be  thoroughly  washed,  and 
dried  with  a  soft,  clean  towel,  then  put  in  a  cool  place. 
Never  mix  the  salad  until  it  is  to  be  served,  as  the  acid 
wilts  the  greens. 

French  Dressing.  —  An  old  Spanish  proverb  says  :  "  To 
make  a  good  salad,  four  persons  are  required ;  a  counsellor 
for  salt,  a  miser  for  vinegar,  a  spendthrift  for  oil,  and  a  mad- 
man to  stir  all  together."  The  general  rule  for  French 
dressing  is  twice  as  much  oil  as  vinegar. 

^  saltspoon  salt,  \  saltspoon  pepper,  black  or  white,  2 
tablespoons  oil,  1  tablespoon  vinegar. 

Put  the  oil,  salt,  and  pepper  in  a  bowl,  stir  until  the  salt 
is  dissolved,  then  add  the  vinegar  drop  by  drop,  stirring  all 
the  time. 

Onion  juice  may  be  added,  and  lemon  juice  may  be  used 
instead  of  vinegar. 

A  teaspoonful  of  mustard  may  be  added  to  the  vinegar  if 
desired.  Tarragon  vinegar  may  be  used. 

The  dressing  should  be  creamy  and  of  a  grayish  color,  due 
to  the  division  of  the  oil  into  small  globules.  If  the  oil  sep- 
arates, stir  hard. 


200  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


SALADS  MADE  WITH  FRENCH  DRESSING 

Green  vegetable  salads,  as  lettuce,  watercress,  or  any  leaf 
salad;  apple,  celery,  potato,  cucumber,  string  beans,  cold 
slaw,  cheese,  and  yellow  tomato. 

Preparation  of  Olive  Oil.  —  There  is  no  tree  in  the  world 
more  interesting  than  the  olive  tree.  Emblem  of  peace  and 
hope,  it  was  especially  sacred  to  the  Athenians,  who  en- 
deavored to  turn  from  the  pursuits  of  war  to  the  arts  of 
peace  and  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  To  the  Christian,  it 
has  the  added  sacredness  of  sorrow,  intensified  by  the  gray- 
green  foliage  of  the  tree  itself.  The  olive  and  vine  are 
closely  associated  with  regard  to  locality,  both  requiring  an 
equable,  mild  climate.  Thus  to-day  both  flourish  best  along 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Two  forms  of  olive  tree  are  known :  the  wild  olive,  with 
bitter,  scanty  fruit,  growing  in  barren  lands ;  and  the  culti- 
vated olive,  which  is  grafted  upon  the  former.  The  olive 
tree  grows  very  slowly,  but  lives  for  centuries.  Thus,  eight 
aged  trees  with  gnarled  trunks  give  unmistakable  proof  of 
the  site  of  the  "  Garden  of  Gethseinane."  One  old  tree  near 
Nice  is  said  to  be  one  thousand  years  old. 

Under  the  most  careful  culture  the  olive  bears  fruit  in 
the  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  year.  The  leaves  are  elongated, 
opposite,  and  smooth  on  the  upper  surface.  The  flowers, 
growing  in  clusters  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  are  whitish 
in  color.  The  ripe  fruit  is  deeply  colored  —  dark  red  or 
purple,  deep  brown  or  black.  To  remove  the  bitter  taste, 
which  even  the  ripe  fruit  has,  the  olives  must  go  through  a 
special  process  before  pickling  in  brine.  A  few  sweet 
varieties,  however,  exist,  the  fruit  being  eaten  when  fresh 
from  the  trees. 

To  obtain  the  oil,  the  olives  are  first  crushed  between  roll- 


SALADS  201 

ers,  sufficient  pressure  being  used  to  crush  only  the  flesh, 
leaving  the  pits  whole.  They  are  then  put  into  sacks  made 
of  grass  or  crash,  and  placed  under  a  press.  The  first  oil  to 
come  from  the  pulp  is  considered  the  best.  The  pressure 
is  increased  until  all  the  oil  is  collected.  Then  cold  water  is 
added,  and  the  mess  again  pressed.  A  third  pressing  is  then 
made,  using  hot  water.  After  purifying,  the  oil  is  ready 
for  the  market. 

The  best  olives  for  eating  come  from  Spain;  the  best 
olive  oil  from  Italy.  The  oil  is  useful  in  pharmacy,  in  the 
manufacture  of  soaps  and  for  preserving  sardines.  The 
olive  tree  industry  is  rapidly  growing  in  our  own  country, 
the  Pacific  slope  offering  one  of  the  best  olive  areas  in  the 
world. 

America  received  it  from  the  Spanish. 

Chili :  here  it  flourishes  as  well  as  in  its  native  home. 

Mexico  and  Upper  California:  planted  by  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries in  the  seventeenth  century. 

China,  Australia,  Cape  Colony  have  recently  received  it. 

Cotton-seed  Oil.  — A  large  amount  of  oil  called  "salad  oil" 
is  not  olive  oil,  but  refined  cotton-seed  oil.  The  best  way  to 
detect  this  substitution  is  by  the  odor,  which  is  extremely 
unpleasant  to  most  persons.  The  oil  is  not  injurious. 

Mayonnaise  Dressing.  —  1  cup  salad  oil,  yolk  of  one  egg, 
dash  of  cayenne,  \  teaspoon  salt,  \  teaspoon  mustard. 

Add  the  mustard,  salt,  and  pepper  to  the  egg.  Beat  well. 
Add  oil,  which  has  been  chilled,  drop  by  drop,  stirring 
always  in  one  direction.  When  it  gets  too  thick  to  stir,  add 
a  few  drops  of  lemon  juice  or  vinegar,  then  more  oil,  and  so 
on  until  all  the  oil  has  been  used.  The  bowl  should  be  kept 
cold.  Use  a  wooden  or  silver  spoon. 

If  it  curdles,  beat  up  another  yolk,  and  add  slowly  the 
curdled  mayonnaise. 

Boiled  Mayonnaise.  —  2  eggs,  ^  pint  vinegar,  %  tablespoon 


202  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

mustard,  J  tablespoon  sugar,  \  tablespoon  salt,  1  pint  milk, 
1  tablespoon  butter. 

Add  mustard,  sugar,  and  salt  to  eggs  and  beat.  Add  vine- 
gar and  stir  well.  Then  add  milk  slowly.  Put  into  a 
double  boiler,  beating  occasionally  to  prevent  it  from  cur- 
dling. Do  not  allow  the  water  in  the  under  dish  to  boil  too 
vigorously.  When  thick,  like  custard,  add  butter  cut  into 
small  pieces.  Beat  again  and  remove  from  fire.  It  will 
take  about  half  an  hour  to  thicken. 

This  dressing  will  keep  for  some  time  in  a  cool  place. 

Salads  made  with  Mayonnaise.  —  Chicken,  all  fish  and 
meat  salads,  tomato,  celery,  cucumber,  cauliflower,  egg,  nut 
and  fruit,  beet,  rice,  and  celery. 

Chicken  and  Meat  Salads.  — Allow  half  as  much  celery  as 
meat.  Cut  the  cold  meat  into  dice,  the  celery,  after  scrap- 
ing and  washing,  also  cut  into  small  pieces.  Mix  the  two, 
and  pour  over  it  a  French  dressing,  and  put  on  the  ice  until 
ready  to  serve.  Mix  a  little  mayonnaise  dressing  with  the 
chicken  or  meat.  Arrange  the  salad  in  a  dish,  pour  mayon- 
naise dressing  over,  garnish  with  celery  leaves  and  capers 
or  lettuce. 

Rice  Salad.  —  1  cup  cooked  rice,  1  cup  diced  beet,  2  cups 
cut  celery. 

Season  with  \  teaspoon  mustard,  1  teaspoon  powdered 
sugar,  dash  cayenne. 

Moisten  with  equal  parts  cream  and  vinegar. 

FIRST  LESSON 

f  Acid,  minerals,  oil. 

1.  Eood  value  of  Salad,  \  May  supply  that  which  is  lack- 

i.      ing  in  the  menu. 

2.  Greens  used  for  salad. 

3.  Preparation  of  greens. 

4.  French  dressing. 


SALADS     .  203 

5.  Salads  made  with  French,  dressing. 

6.  Preparation  of  one  or  two  of  these  salads. 

7.  Fruit  salad. 

Method.  —  Have  on  the  table  as  many  of  the  salad  greens 
as  may  be  obtained  at  this  season.  Take  the  subjects  in  the 
order  given.  Let  each  student  prepare  two  lettuce  leaves 
and  a  small  piece  of  celery,  which  are  to  be  used  in  making 
the  salads  of  the  lesson. 

Individual  Rule  for  French  Dressing.  —  1  tablespoon  oil,  2 
teaspoons  vinegar,  1  saltspoon  salt,  dash  of  pepper. 

SECOND   LESSON 

1.  Economy  in  salads. 

2.  Salads  made  with  meat,  fish,  or  cooked  vegetables. 

3.  Preparation  of  olive  oil. 

4.  Mayonnaise  with  oil. 

5.  Boiled  mayonnaise. 

6.  Salads  made  with  mayonnaise. 

7.  Preparation  of  a  meat  or  fish  salad. 

8.  Preparation  of  a  vegetable  salad. 

Method.  —  Emphasize  the  variety  and  economy  of  salads  ; 
also,  the  necessity  for  using  only  good  oil,  free  from  all  un- 
pleasant odor.  This  should  always  be  kept  in  a  cool  place 
to  prevent  it  from  becoming  rancid  after  opening  the  bottle. 

Individual  Rule  for  Mayonnaise  Dressing.  —  f  saltspoon 
salt,  i  saltspoon  pepper,  1  yolk  of  egg,  ^  cup  of  olive  oil. 

Follow  directions  given  in  large  rule. 

Individual  Rule  for  Boiled  Mayonnaise.  —  Heat  one  table- 
spoonful  of  vinegar.  Add  to  it  J  a  beaten  egg,  and  ^  tea- 
spoon salt,  a  -few  grains  of  pepper,  and  ^  teaspoon  butter. 
Place  in  a  small  improvised  double  boiler,  and  stir  con- 
stantly until  it  thickens.  If  it  becomes  curdled,  beat  until 
it  is  smooth. 

[No  milk  is  used  in  the  small  rule.] 


UNIVERSITY' 


204  HANDBOOK  -OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Chicken  or  Meat  Salad.  —  Use  any  cold  meat,  preferably 
chicken  or  veal.  Have  this  cut  into  small  dice.  Individual 
rule :  Two  rounded  teaspoons  meat,  and  one  of  celery.  Mix 
with  a  little  of  the  mayonnaise  dressing.  Put  into  a  suita- 
ble dish.  Pour  the  rest  of  the  dressing  over  the  top  and 
garnish  with  celery  leaves  and  capers. 

Rice  Salad  (Individual  Rule). — 1  full  rounded  teaspoon 
cooked  rice ;  1  full  rounded  teaspoon  cooked  beet,  diced :  2 
full  rounded  teaspoons  cut  celery,  i-  saltspoon  seasoning  — 
mustard,  cayenne,  salt,  powdered  sugar.     Moisten  with  2 
teaspoons  each  of  cream  and  vinegar. 


FEBRUARY 


THE  DINING  KOOM 

BY  L.  L.  W.  WILSON,  PH.D., 

OF  THE  PHILADELPHIA  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

ADVANCED  COUESE  :     BREAD,   PASTE Y,   AND 
CAKE 

BY  MBS.  ALICE  PELOUBET  NORTON,  A.M., 

OP  THE  BROOKLINE  HIGH  SCHOOL  ; 

LECTURER  AT  LASELL.  SEMINARY,  BOSTON  Y.  W.  0.  A.  SCHOOL  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 
AND  AT  CHAUTAUQUA,  N.Y. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE  DINING   ROOM 
BY  L.  L.  W.  WILSON,  PH.D. 

The  Expert  Waitress,  Springsteed  ;  Waiting  at  Table,  by  a  Member 
of  the  Aristocracy  (English)  ;  What  to  Eat ;  How  to  Serve  It,  Mrs. 
Herrick ;  The  Dining  Room,  Art  Journal,  vol.  31,  p.  285. 

Essays  of  Elia,  "  Grace  Before  Meat,"  Charles  Lamb  ;  Miscellaneous 
Essays,  De  Quincey  ;  Feasts  of  Autolycus,  ed.  by  Elizabeth  Bobbins 
Pennell ;  Delicate  Feasting,  Theodore  Child  ;  All  the  Year  Round,  vol. 
20,  pp.  104,  127  (Roman  Dinners)  ;  Belgravia,  vol.  16,  p.  80  (Dining 
with  a  Mandarin)  ;  All  the  Year  Round,  vol.  67,  pp.  5,  34  ;  vol.  68,  pp. 
78-390  ;  vol.69,  pp.  79-349  ;  vol.  71,  p.  535  (Famous  Dinners)  ;  Corn- 
hill  Magazine,  vol.  40,  p.  590  (Dinners  in  Literature)  ;  Chambers's 
Journal,  vol.  40,  p.  367  (Uncommon  Dinners)  ;  Blackwood,  vol.  71, 
p.  734 ;  Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  32,  p.  203 ;  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
vol.  14,  p.  799;  Living  Age,  vol.  165,  p.  440;  Cosmopolitan,  vol.  3, 
p.  63  ;  Chautauquan,  vol.  23,  p.  93. 

Homer :  Odyssey,  Dinner  of  Penelope's  Suitors ;  Illiad,  Priam's 
dinner,  Niobe's  dinner;  Plutarch's  Lives  (Numa  Pompilius) ,  Petronius, 
Trimalchio's  Banquet.  This  famous  work  has  been  recently  translated 
by  Harry  Thurston  Peck.  Based  on  this  famous  feast  are  the  descrip- 
tions of  dinners  in  Bulwer's  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  Bekker's  Gselus, 
and  Sienkiewicz's  Quo  Vadis.  Boswell's  Life  of  Samuel  Johnson. 
(Innumerable  dinners  famous  for  their  company  as  well  as  the  viands 
are  here  described.)  Dean  Swift's  Conversations.  Sir  Walter  Scott: 
Ivanhoe,  Chaps.  III-V;  Waverley,  Chap.  XXIX ;  Redgauntlet,  Letter 
Four,  Chap.  XVIII  (the  Coronation  Feast);  Bride  of  Lammermoor, 
Chap.  VII;  Guy  Mannering  (Gypsy  Cooking,  Chap.  XL VI  and  note); 
Kenilworth,  Chap.  XXXII  (Banquet  to  Elizabeth) ;  Talisman,  Chap. 
III.  Dickens :  Christmas  Carol  (Bob  Cratchit's  Dinner)  ;  David 

207 


208  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Copperfield  (Dinner  to  Steerforth,  Dinner  to  Micawber);  Oliver  Twist 
(The  Workhouse  Dinner,  Chap.  II) ;  Pickwick  Papers  (dinners  too 
numerous  to  mention).  Thackeray :  Vanity  Fair,  Chap.  VII ;  The 
Newcomes,  Chap.  XIII  (The  Famous  Dinner  Eaten  by  Addison, 
Steele,  and  Harry  Esmond) .  Disraeli :  Vivian  Grey,  the  dinner  eaten 
by  Vivian  and  the  Marquis  of  Carabas ;  Lothair,  dinner  at  Brent  — 
at  Mrs.  Putney  Giles. 

The  dinners  of  Sir  Joshua  Keynolds  were  famous,  in  their  own  day, 
with  a  reputation  for  good  company  and  bad  serving  which  has  reached 
to  the  present  generation.  In  a  different  way,  the  dinners  given  by  the 
poet  Kogers,  and  those  by  Lady  Holland  at  Holland  House,  are  equally 
well  known. 

DECORATION  OF  THE  DINING  EOOM 

As  Theodore  Child  aptly  said,  the  best  decoration  for 
a  dining  room  is  a  well-cooked  dinner.  Yet,  without 
doubt,  that  dinner  will  taste  all  the  better  in  a  room  that 
is  rationally  furnished,  tastefully  decorated,  and  the  tem- 
perature of  which  is  maintained  at  an  agreeable  point. 

The  most  famous  dining  room  of  ancient  times  was 
perhaps  that  of  Lucullus,  who  built  in  it  an  aviary,  so 
that  as  he  ate  the  Eoman  dainty  of  thrushes  he  might, 
at  the  same  time,  feast  his  eyes  on  their  living  forms 
and  tickle  his  ears  with  beautiful  song.  The  revival 
of  this  idea  in  modern  days,  brought  about,  doubtless,  by 
the  discovery  of  the  elaborate  decorations  of  Pompeian 
dining  rooms,  in  decorating  the  dining  room  with  the  stuffed 
skins  of  fish  and  game  is  even  less  commendable. 

A  dining  room  should  be  characteristic,  light  and  gay, 
English  ideas  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

One  of  the  famous  dining  rooms  of  modern  times  is  that 
designed  by  the  artist  Whistler  for  a  London  house.  The 
walls  are  pale  blue  decorated  with  arabesques  that  recall 
the  feathers  of  a  peacock.  Peacocks  decorate  the  carved 
panels  of  the  window-shutters,  and  on  gilt  shelves  rests  the 
blue  and  white  China  porcelain.  One  almost  suspects  that 


THE   DINING   KOOM  209 


this  scheme  of  color  and  decoration  was  suggested  by  the 
dining  rooms  in  the  houses  of  those  Chinese  mandarins  that 
chance  to  be  of  royal  blood.  For  the  walls  of  these  rooms 
are  hung  with  yellow,  decorated  with  the  dragons,  and 
against  these  hangings  rests  their  blue  and  white  china. 

Particularly  does  the  notion  occur  to  one  who  looks  into 
Whistler's  own  dining  room,  for  his  walls  are  hung  with 
canary  yellow,  and  the  only  decorations  are  blue  and  white 
china. 

Comte  Mole  used  to  change  his  decorations  to  suit  his 
guests.  For  example,  in  giving  a  dinner  to  a  foreign  diplo- 
mat, pictures,  flowers,  plants,  —  all  were  such  as  were  char- 
acteristic of  the  fatherland  of  his  guest. 

Lord  Lonsdale  went  so  far  as  to  make  the  color  scheme 
of  the  room  such  as  would  best  suit  the  complexion,  hair, 
and  eyes  of  his  beautiful  guests. 

Certain  practical  points,  however,  must  be  thoroughly 
taught  before  one  can  go  even  superficially  into  the  aesthet- 
ics of  the  subject. 

I.  The  dining  room  is  in  daily  use. 

II.  It  must  be  immaculately  clean. 

III.  It  must  be  beautiful. 

IV.  The   cost   of    furnishing    it   must   be   within  one's 
means. 

For  these  reasons,  the  furniture  should  be  plain  but  good, 
the  colors  gay  but  light,  and  the  decorations  for  the  most 
part  plants,  flowers,  or  perhaps  an  aquarium,  rather  than 
hangings  of  any  kind. 

A  light  rug  is  the  nearest  approach  to  a  carpet  that  may 
be  permitted. 

The  necessary  things  for  a  school  dining  room  are  :  — 

(1)  A  table,   by   preference   round,   or   at   least  broad, 
rather  than  long  and  narrow. 

(2)  Chairs. 


210  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

(3)  The  following  china,  the  number  in  each  case  de- 
pending upon  the  number  of  students  who  will  be  doing 
practical  work  in  this  room  at  any  one  time :  — 

1  soup  tureen  Bread  plates 

Soup  plates  Sugar  and  cream  set 

Tumblers  Tablespoons 

2  platters  Teaspoons 
Dinner  plates  Steel  knives 
2  vegetable  dishes  Fruit  knives 
1  salad  dish  Forks 
Salad  plates  Carving  set 

1  dessert  dish  2  tablecloths 

Dessert  plates  1  felt 

Coffee  cups  Napkins 

The  additional  desirable  things  are :  — 

A  china  closet  2  carafes 

Bread-and-butter  plates  Finger  bowls 

Olive  dish  Coffee  spoons 

After-dinner  coffee  cups  Salad  knife  and  fork 

Salts  and  peppers  Doilies 

The  proper  equipment  of  a  dining  room  at  a  minimum 
cost  has  been  discussed  in  the  last  chapter  of  this  book. 

Method.  —  Discuss  with  the  girls  the  use  of  the  dining 
room,  the  necessity  for  cleanliness,  and  the  logical  conclu- 
sion with  regard  to  (a)  floor,  (6)  hangings,  (c)  ornaments. 

Tell  them  of  various  original  and  beautiful  decorations. 
Let  them  suggest  others,  but  in  the  end  choose  something 
quite  plain  for  the  school  dining  room. 

Let  them  make  lists  of  needed  articles,  and  keep  these 
lists  for  comparison  with  similar  lists  made  after  they  have 
studied  the  room. 


THE   DINING   ROOM  211 


In  the  skeleton  menus,  given  later,  an  effort  has  been 
made  to  present  something  practical,  that  shall  represent 
what  should  exist  in  the  average  American  family.  If, 
however,  the  teacher's  work  lies  with  poorer  people,  she 
must  adapt  herself  to  the  circumstances. 

We  have  tried  always  to  indicate  specifically  under  each 
section  how  this  may  be  done;  but  the  matter  is  of  so 
much  importance  that  too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid 
upon  it. 

RELATED  READING,  LANGUAGE,  AND  SPELLING  LESSONS 

The  menus,  plans  for  setting  the  table,  lists  of  dishes, 
order  for  serving  and  for  cleaning  already  suggested  will 
give  abundant  training  in  written  language. 

The  references  to  general  literature  will  suggest  innu- 
merable possibilities  for  oral  language^-  and  the  "  Reader 
in  Domestic  Science"  gives  varied  and  abundant  reading 
matter  with  reference  to  various  historical  dinners,  and  the 
habits  and  customs  of  other  nations  and  ages. 

BREAKFAST 

Facts. — The  usual  and  average  American  breakfast 
consists  of:  — 

Fruit 

Cereal,  Cream,  or  Warm  Milk 

Meat,  or  Eggs  Potatoes 

Bread  and  Butter  Milk 

[Hot  Bread         Coffee] 

This  should  be  served  in  the  four  courses  indicated. 
That   this   meal    shall   be   served  and  eaten    properly, 
attention  must  be  given  to  the  following  points :  — 


212  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

(1)  The  care  of  the  dining  room  before  breakfast.  . 

(2)  The  setting  of  the  table,  side  table,  and  sideboard. 

(3)  Preparation  of  bread,  butter,  and  water. 

(4)  Serving  the  meal. 

CARE  OF  THE  DINING  ROOM  BEFORE  BREAKFAST 

The  room  must  be  aired,  put  to  rights,  and  dusted. 

Except  in  the  coldest  weather,  give  the  dining  room  a 
thorough  airing,  by  opening  the  windows  both  at  the  top 
and  at  the  bottom.  The  length  of  time  during  which  the 
windows  should  be  open  depends  entirely  upon  the  tem- 
perature, and  this  can  be  accurately  judged  only  by  a 
thermometer.  The  optimum  temperature  is  68°  F.,  since 
the  occupants  will  be  sitting  quietly,  and  not  at  work. 

Brush  up  the  rug.  Wipe  the  floor  with  a  damp  cloth,  or 
dust  mop,  if  it  needs  it. 

With  a  cheese-cloth  duster,  dust  carefully  the  table, 
chairs,  side  table,  sideboard,  window  ledges,  shaking  the 
duster  out  of  doors  at  the  necessary  intervals. 

See  that  the  mirrors,  glass  doors,  and  picture  glasses  are 
clean. 

See  that  each  article  of  furniture  is  in  its  proper  place, 
and  at  its  proper  angle. 

In  setting  the  table,  cover  it  first  with  a  cover  of  double 
Canton  flannel  or  felt.  This  protects  the  polished  surface 
from  hot  dishes,  and  also  makes  even  a  handsome  cloth 
look  handsomer. 

Over  this,  spread  the  table-cloth.  The  long  middle 
crease  must  divide  the  table  exactly  in  half. 

Put  for  each  person,  a  fruit  plate,  covered  with  a  doily, 
on  which  rests  a  finger  bowl,  one-third  full  of  water.  See 
that  each  plate  is  symmetrically  placed,  both  with  reference 
to  the  table  as  a  whole,  and  each  of  the  other  plates.  At 
the  right  of  each  plate,  place  a  silver  fruit  knife,  with  its 


THE   DINING   BOOM  213 

edge  toward  the  plate.  If  a  spoon  is  needed,  put  it  to  the 
left,  with  the  bowl  up. 

Two  tumblers  should  be  placed  at  the  right,  and  a  bread- 
and-butter  plate  at  the  left. 

On  the  right,  again,  put  the  breakfast  knife  and  cereal 
spoon,  and  to  the  left,  the  fork,  with  the  tines  turned  up, 
and  the  napkin. 

Between  the  places  for  two  people,  place  a  saltcellar  and 
spoon  and  a  pepper,  or  put  the  salts  and  pepper  at  the  top 
of  each  plate. 

At  the  foot  of  the  table,  lay  the  carving  cloth. 

Put  the  carving  knife  and  spoon  to  the  right,  and  the 
fork  to  the  left,  of  course,  with  the  sharp  edge  of  the  knife 
facing  the  centre,  and  the  bowl  of  the  spoon  and  the  tines 
of  the  fork  up. 

The  carving  knife  must  be  sharpened  with  the  steel  each 
time  before  using  it. 

At  the  head  of  the  table,  place  symmetrically,  cups  and 
saucers,  sugar,  cream,  and  a  rest  for  the  coffee-pot.  This 
rest  is  to  save  the  table  from  the  heat,  and  should  be  made 
of  the  same  material  as  the  pot,  china  or  silver,  as  the  case 
may  be. 

In  setting  the  side  table,  place  on  it  the  silver  tray,  a 
small  napkin,  a  large  napkin,  leaving  plenty  of  room  for 
hot  dishes  and  mats  or  trays  to  keep  them  from  injuring 
the  polish  of  the  wood. 

On  the  sideboard,  put  extra  plates,  knives,  forks,  spoons, 
tumblers,  a  bowl  of  granulated  or  powdered  sugar  for  the 
cereal,  a  pitcher  of  cream,  and  a  pitcher  of  water  if  carafes 
are  not  used. 

Carafes  are  very  desirable.  In  them  the  water  may  be 
sufficiently  chilled  to  be  agreeable,  and  yet  not  so  much  so 
as  to  interfere  with  digestion,  provided  they  are  put  in  the 
refrigerator  over  night.  They  save  the  waitress's  time,  a 


214  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

very  important  matter,  if  the  family  is  of  any  size.  More- 
over, they  add  to  the  appearance  of  the  table. 

See  that  the  chairs  are  properly  placed,  that  the  doors 
and  drawers  are  all  shut,  and  that  the  newspapers  are 
where  they  belong,  probably  at  the  right  of  the  foot  of  the 
table,  the  seat  of  the  master  of  the  house. 

Just  before  breakfast  is  ready  to  be  served,  place  in  the 
centre  of  the  table  the  fruit.  This  should  be  clean  and 
cool  in  reality  as  well  as  in  appearance.  It  looks  best  in 
glass,  and  with  no  decoration  except,  perhaps,  a  few  of  its 
own  leaves. 

Put  the  butter  and  the  bread  on  the  table. 

The  most  economical  method  of  serving  bread  is  to  put 
the  whole  loaf  on  the  bread  board,  and  cut  from  it  only 
what  is  needed.  Because  it  is  the  less  wasteful,  it  is  the 
best  way ;  but  the  waitress  usually  thinks  differently,  and 
prefers  to  cut  a  number  of  slices,  several  of  which  are  sure 
to  be  unused,  and  too  dry  for  anything  except  the  bread- 
crumb jar. 

Whichever  method  is  pursued,  the  outer,  stale  slice  (if 
the  loaf  is  not  fresh)  must  be  removed,  and  only  freshly 
cut  bread  used. 

Last  of  all,  pour  the  water  into  the  tumblers. 

When  the  family  are  seated,  each  removes  from  her  fruit 
plate  the  doily  and  finger  bowl,  and  spreads  her  napkin. 

The  waitress  should  place  the  fruit  on  the  silver  tray, 
and  pass  it  to  the  mistress  of  the  house,  standing  at  her 
left.  It  is  fh.en  passed  to  each  person  in  turn,  in  the 
same  way. 

There  is  great  difference  of  opinion  and  custom  with 
regard  to  tht>  order  of  serving  when  guests  are  present. 
The  simplest  way  is  that  indicated;  first,  to  the  hostess, 
passing  around  to  her  right-hand  guest,  and  serving  the 
others  in  turn.  For  a  large  company,  this  is  obviously  the 


THE  DINING   BOOM  215 

best  way ;  but  when  there  are  only  a  few  present,  many 
prefer  to  have  the  waitress  serve,  first  the  hostess,  and  then 
the  other  ladies  at  the  table,  before  serving  the  gentlemen, 
regardless  of  the  zigzagging  often  necessitated  by  this  rule. 

While  the  fruit  is  being  eaten,  replenish  the  water 
glasses. 

Remove  the  fruit  course  as  follows :  First,  the  fruit 
dish,  placing  it  on  the  side  table;  then  the  individual 
plates,  each  with  its  bowl,  knife,  and  spoon,  carrying  them 
to  the  pantry. 

Bring  in  the  cereal. 

This  may  be  served  by  the  mistress.  In  this  case,  set 
before  her  the  individual  dishes,  with  the  tablespoon. 
Remove  the  cover  to  the  side  table.  As  she  serves  it,  put 
the  saucer  on  the  tray,  together  with  the  sugar  and  cream 
from  the  sideboard,  and  pass  it  to  each  in  turn.  Or  the 
individual  dishes  may  be  passed  first,  then  the  cereal,  and 
then  the  cream  and  sugar. 

Remove  the  cereal  course  as  follows:  First,  the  dish, 
placing  it  on  the  side  table,  covering  it,  and  then  each  of 
the  individual  plates,  in  turn,  until  all  are  removed  to  the 
pantry. 

For  the  next  course,  bring  in  the  warm  plates,  putting 
them  before  the  master  of  the  house.  Then  put  before  him 
the  platter,  and  on  the  sideboard  the  potatoes.  When  he 
carves  a  portion,  place  the  plate  with  it  on  before  the 
person  for  whom  it  was  intended,  standing  at  her  right. 

Uncover  the  potatoes,  place  a  tablespoon  in  the  dish, 
pass  them. 

Pass  bread  and  butter. 

Replenish  the  water. 

Bring  in  the  coffee-pot. 

As  the  mistress  of  the  house  prepares  the  cup,  set  it 
down  to  the  right  of  the  person  for  whom  it  is  intended,  or 


216  HANDBOOK  OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

else  pass,  first,  the  coffee  in  a  cup,  and  then  the  cream  and 
sugar. 

After  breakfast,  the  food  must  be  put  away  and  the 
dishes  removed. 

Have  a  definite  place  for  putting  each  of  the  following 
sets  of  dishes  as  they  come  from  the  dining  room :  heavy 
china,  lighter  china,  glass,  silver  knives.  The  separate 
silver  and  knife  pitchers  are  a  great  convenience. 

Every  particle  of  food  that  can  be  used  again  should  be 
put  away  in  its  proper  receptacle  in  the  kitchen.  Gravy, 
even  so  small  a  quantity  as  a  spoonful  of  any  vegetable, 
dressing  from  a  roast,  bones,  should  all  be  saved.  They 
may  be  put  in  one  receptacle,  for  the  combination  will 
make  an  excellent  soup  for  lunch.  Bread  should  be  kept 
by  itself,  and,  of  course,  meat  and  any  vegetable  of  which 
there  is  a  sufficient  quantity  for  a  second  serving  should 
each  have  its  own  place.  It  need  hardly  be  said,  that  none 
of  the  dining  room  dishes  should  ever  be  found  in  the 
refrigerator. 

After  the  food  has  been  put  away,  empty  every  glass, 
cup,  and  pitcher.  Fill  the  milk  and  cream  pitchers  with 
cold  water. 

Scrape  the  plates  and  other  dishes  carefully.  Remember 
that  a  crust  of  bread  cleans  more  effectually,  and  with  less 
danger  of  scratching,  than  either  a  knife  or  a  spoon. 

A  crockery  or  agate-ware  bowl  should  be  kept  in  a 
definite  place  to  serve  as  a  temporary  receptacle  for  these 
scraps.  Tin  will  not  answer  the  purpose,  because  it  will 
not  long  remain  clean,  since  a  bit  of  lemon  or  tomato  will 
quickly  rust  it. 

For  washing  dishes,  the  following  articles  are  necessary : 
clean  sink,  dishpan,  hot  water,  soap,  soap  shaker,  Bath  brick 
dust,  board,  cork  and  cloth,  mop,  dish  drainer,  dry  towels, 
ammonia. 


THE   DINING   ROOM  217 

See  that  there  will  be  plenty  of  room  to  place  the  dishes 
after  they  are  washed. 

Make  hot  suds  in  the  pan.     Remove  the  soap. 

Wash  the  glass  first,  then  the  finer,  lighter  china.  Wash 
quickly,  set  each  set  on  the  drainer,  and  dry  thoroughly 
with  towel.  Put  each  set,  as  they  are  dried,  in  exactly  the 
place  left  vacant  for  them. 

Pour  out  the  now  cool  water. 

Make  more  hot  suds,  removing  the  soap. 

Wash  the  silver.  Place  it  on  the  drainer,  pouring  over 
it  a  pitcher  of  hot  water.  Dry  quickly,  and  put  it  in  its 
appointed  permanent  place,  lest  it  be  spattered  with  wet 
from  the  other  washing. 

If  the  water  is  still  hot,  wash  in  the  same  way  the  plates 
and  other  dishes,  putting  in  only  one  kind  at  a  time. 
These  may  be  placed  in  turn  on  the  drainer ;  but  the  clean 
water  poured  over  them  must  not  be  too  hot,  or  the  finer 
china  will  be  cracked,  and  its  glaze  gradually  destroyed. 

Be  careful  to  wash  thoroughly  the  insides  of  pitchers. 
After  the  milk  pitchers  are  washed,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
pour  into  them  boiling  water,  and  let  them  stand  until  all 
the  other  dishes  have  been  dried. 

Now  for  the  knives.  Their  handles  must  never  touch 
water.  For  this  reason,  the  tin  pitchers  that  come  for  this 
purpose  are  a  great  convenience ;  for  in  them  the  knives 
may  be  placed  from  the  beginning,  handles  up. 

In  washing  them,  hold  the  handles  in  the  left  hand,  and 
wash  with  the  right.  Then  let  the  blades  rest  flat  on  the 
scouring  board.  Dip  a  cork  or  cloth  in  water,  and  then  in 
powdered  Bath  brick,  rubbing  the  steel  until  all  stains  are 
removed.  Dry  the  knives  with  dry  brick-dust,  wipe  with  a 
soft  cloth,  and  put  them  in  the  permanent  place  at  once. 

Put  away  all  the  dishes. 

Pour  out  the  last  dish-water. 


218  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Put  into  the  dishpan  plenty  of  very  hot  water.  To  this 
add  a  little  ammonia.  Wash  in  it  all  the  dish  towels  and 
hang  them  out  in  the  air  to  dry. 

See  care  of  the  sink  in  the  section  on  cleaning  in  the 
chapter  on  The  Kitchen. 

Clean  the  table. 

Sweep  the  floor. 

E-eturn  to  the  dining  room. 

Air  it,  and,  while  the  windows  are  open,  remove  the 
crumbs  from  the  cloth,  fold  it  in  the  old  crease,  put  it 
and  the  napkins  away. 

Brush  up  the  rug. 

CLASS-KOOM  LESSON 

Method.  —  Why  do  we  eat  in  the  dining  room  rather  than 
our  own  bedrooms  ?  How  can  we  be  sure  that  the  air  is  suf- 
ficiently fresh  ?  What  else  is  important  besides  fresh  air  ? 
What  must  we  do  in  order  to  be  sure  that  the  dining  room  is 
clean  ?  What  else  is  necessary  besides  fresh  air  and  clean- 
liness ?  How  shall  we  secure  order  ? 

What  is  the  use  of  a  table-cloth?  Is  it  thick  enough? 
What  can  we  do  to  make  it  thicker  ? 

What  dishes  shall  we  put  on  the  table  ? 

Since  this  obviously  depends  on  the  food  to  be  served, 
discuss  with  the  students  the  question  of  breakfast  dishes 
and  courses. 

Find  out  from  the  students  their  usual  breakfast.  The 
safest  way  to  do  this  is  to  ask  them  to  write  for  you,  the  day 
before,  just  what  they  had  for  breakfast  on  that  day.  This 
gives  you  the  opportunity  quietly  to  put  yourself  in 
touch  with  their  mode  of  living  and  adapt  your  ideas  to  it. 
It  will  save  you  perhaps  from  riding  rough  shod  over  their 
prejudices  and  habits,  and,  better  still,  show  you  the  easiest 
place  for  the  entering  wedge  of  something  better. 


THE   DINING   KOOM  219 

If,  for  example,  they  belong  to  the  poorer  and  poorest 
class  in  the  city,  it  would  be  absurd  to  urge  fruit  and  finger 
bowls,  but  worth  a  great  deal  to  recommend  a  glass  of  water 
for  a  first  course. 

The  cereals,  however,  should  be  urged  upon  them,  for 
they  are  cheap,  nourishing,  easily  prepared. 

The  third  course  will  be  given  by  all  pupils.  And  from 
the  hygienic  point  of  view,  since  they  are  children  and  not 
adults,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  hot  bread  and  coffee  will  be 
omitted  by  all.  Nevertheless,  they  should  be  taught  the 
proper  serving  of  these  articles  of  diet  too. 

Put  on  the  board  a  general  menu  on  the  plan  of  the  one 
at  the  head  of  this  section,  the  best  under  the  circumstances 
to  which  your  pupils  can  aspire.  Get  from  them  the  reasons 
for  including  each  article.  (See  chapter  on  Foods).  Let 
them  name  various  cereals,  various  possible  meat  and  egg 
dishes. 

Then  substitute  for  the  word  cereal,  a  cereal,  and  the 
meat  or  egg  dish,  a  meat  dish  or  eggs  prepared  in  some 
particular  style. 

What  dishes  shall  we  need  to  serve  each  of  these  ? 
Where  shall  we  place  them  ?  Why  ?  How  ?  Why  ? 

Obviously  the  answers  to  these  questions  depend  largely 
upon  the  class  of  children.  If  no  servant  is  kept  in  their 
homes,  it  is  of  doubtful  utility  to  urge  courses.  On  the 
contrary,  everything  should  be  within  reach  and  the  number 
of  dishes  reduced  to  a  minimum;  but  with  even  one  servant, 
there  is  no  reason  why  all  meals  should  not  be  properly 
served. 

As  a  summary  of  the  lesson,  put  on  the  board 

Care  of  the  dining  room  before  breakfast :  — 

1.  Fresh  air. 

2.  Optimum  temperature. 

3.  Cleanliness. 


220  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

4.  Order. 

Menu. 

List  of  dishes  required  for  serving :  — 

China,  glass,  silver. 

Kequire  the  students  to  bring  in  these  skeletons  filled  out. 

For  the  practical  work  the  ideal  method  is,  of  course, 
to  give  each  student  the  opportunity  to  do  each  part  of  the 
work  herself.  The  grade  teacher  has  the  advantage  over 
the  special  teacher  in  that  she  is  there  with  the  class  all 
day,  and  that  she  can  send  one  and  another  to  the  dining 
room  to  do  this,  that,  and  the  other  thing  at  convenient 
times  to  herself.  She  can  take  a  moment  for  inspection  — 
if  she  is  a  good  housekeeper  —  and  then,  having  the  dishes 
replaced,  begin  all  over  again.  But  even  the  grade  teacher 
will  find  it  necessary  to  double  up  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  Two  girls  can  work  to  advantage  at  one  time,  and 
two  more  can  criticise  and  perhaps  improve  upon  the  same 
work. 

If  it  is  a  possible  thing,  however,  have  all  the  children, 
at  one  time  or  another,  eat  at  least  one  meal  under  your 
supervision. 

A  capable  teacher,  who  has  her  class  well  in  hand,  could 
supervise  four  cooks,  three  waitresses,  twelve  guests,  using 
the  rest  of  the  class  perhaps  as  assistant  critics,  requiring 
them  to  make  notes,  and  discussing  the  matter  with  the 
entire  class  afterward. 

Still,  I  am  willing  to  admit  that  the  question  of  sufficient 
practice  in  an  ordinary  grade  school  is  difficult  to  manage, 
and  the  teacher  must  remember  that  the  principles  involved 
are  after  all  equally  important,  and  bring  to  their  evolution 
and  the  subsequent  necessary  drill  upon  them  all  the  re- 
sources that  she  employs  in  teaching  other  subjects. 

1.  Develop  the  principle,  using  the  blackboards  freely. 

2.  Apply  these  principles  practically. 


THE   DINING  KOOM  221 

3.  Be   sure   that  both,  principles   and  applications  are 
clearly  denned  in  the  child's  mind. 

4.  Make  a  summary  and  require  the  children  to  give  back 
to  you  the  details  which  you  have  given  them,  or  better  still, 
not  the  same  but  similar  details,  coming  from  their  own 
experience. 

5.  Practice  under  criticism. 

6.  Practice  after  criticism. 

7.  Practice  in  their  homes. 

Although  dish-washing  has  been  taught  and  practised  in 
connection  with  cooking,  yet  these  lessons  on  the  dining 
room  give  the  opportunity  for  a  clearer  understanding  of 
the  principles  involved. 

CLASS-ROOM  LESSON 

What  objection  to  putting  the  dishes  as  they  come  from 
the  dining  room  in  any  order?  Which  dishes  should  be 
placed  together  ?  Why  ?  Before  the  dishes  are  washed 
what  must  be  cared  for  ?  How  ?  Why  ?  Why  must  the 
scrap  bowl  be  of  earthenware,  or  agate  ware  ?  What  is 
agate  ware  ?  Its  advantages,  disadvantages,  over  crockery  ? 

What  things  will  be  needed  to  wash  the  crockery,  the 
glass,  the  silver,  steel,  dish-cloths?  Wliy? 

Which  will  you  wash  first?  Why?  How?  Where 
will  you  put  each  article  washed?  Why? 

Why  must  the  handles  of  steel  knives  never  be  placed  in 
water  ?  Why  is  brick-dust  used  in  cleaning  them  ? 

What  must  be  done  to  leave  the  dining  room  in  order  ? 

Why  must  the  dining  room  again  be  aired  ?  What  else 
must  be  done  before  you  leave  it?  Why? 


222  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

DINNER 

Facts.  —  The  usual  and  average  American  dinner  consists 

of:  — 

Soup  Celery 

Joint  Potatoes,  one  other  Vegetable 

Salad        Crackers  and  Cheese 

Dessert 

Coffee 

This  should  be  served  in  the  five  courses  indicated. 
Attention  must  be  given  to  the  following  points :  — 

(1)  The  care  of  the  dining  room  before  dinner. 

(2)  The  setting  of  the  table,  side  table,  and  sideboard. 

(3)  Preparation  of  relishes,  bread,  water. 

(4)  Serving  the  meal. 

Be  sure  that  the  air  of  the  dining  room  is  fresh  and  that 
the  temperature  is  sufficiently  low.  If  the  dinner  is  served 
at  night,  by  all  means  have  the  temperature  below  68°  F.,  for 
the  lighting  of  lamps  and  gas  will  certainly  raise  it  quickly, 
particularly  if  the  room  is  small. 

The  room  ought  to  be  in  order  from  the  care  given  it  after 
breakfast.  See,  however,  that  this  is  the  case. 

In  setting  the  table,  follow  the  directions  given  for  break- 
fast, except,  of  course,  that  no  fruit  plate,  knife,  or  spoons 
are  to  be  placed  on  the  table,  nor  is  the  coffee  service  to  be 
put  at  the  head  of  the  table. 

For  the  simple  dinner  indicated  above,  only  a  soup  spoon, 
two  forks,  and  a  dinner  knife,  together  with  napkin,  glass, 
salt,  and  pepper  should  be  put  at  each  place.  The  same 
rules  obtain  for  their  position  at  dinner  as  at  breakfast,  viz., 
spoon,  knife,  tumbler  at  the  right ;  forks  and  napkin  at  the 
left.  Put  the  soup  ladle  at  the  place  of  the  mistress. 


THE   DINING   ROOM  223 


In  the  middle  of  the  table,  instead  of  a  bowl  of  fruit,  put 
a  glass  of  flowers  or  a  growing  plant. 

See  that  the  sideboard  is  in  perfect  order,  (1)  in  regard  to 
its  cover,  (2)  in  regard  to  the  position  and  condition  of  its 
more  or  less  permanent  articles. 

For  serving  the  dinner,  be  sure  that  the  following  articles 
are  clean  and  in  good  condition :  — 

(1)  Extra  glasses,  knives,  forks,  and  spoons  for  an  emer- 
gency. 

(2)  The  dessert  plates  and  forks.    If  fruit  is  served,  then 
each  plate  should  be  provided  also  with  a  doily  and  finger 
bowl,  as  indicated  for  breakfast. 

(3)  After-dinner  coffee  cups  and  saucers,  spoons,  small 
bowl  of  cut  sugar,  a  small   cream  jug,  and  crackers   and 
cheese,  ready  to  serve. 

On  the  side  table  place  the  carving  knife  and  fork,  salad 
plates,  tablespoons,  sauce  ladles.  Leave  plenty  of  room  for 
the  vegetable  dishes  and  gravy  dish. 

Take  into  the  kitchen  the  soup  plates,  dinner  plates,  soup 
tureen,  meat  platter,  vegetable  dishes,  placing  them  on  the 
shelf  above  the  stove.  Care  must  be  exercised,  especially 
with  fine  china,  not  to  put  them  where  they  will  get  too  hot, 
for  this  will  quickly  crack  the  glaze.  Without  doubt,  the 
best  way  to  heat  them  is  by  passing  them  through  warm 
water. 

Put  the  salad  bowl  in  the  refrigerator,  in  which  place  also 
the  olive  dishes.  Salted  almonds,  if  used,  may  be  placed  on 
the  table  at  once. 

Put  on  each  napkin,  or  if  in  its  folds,  still  sufficiently  out 
that  it  may  be  seen,  a  piece  of  bread  cut  into  a  slice  about 
three  inches  thick  and  deep  and  four  inches  long,  or  else 
the  regular  dinner  roll.  Put  reserve  bread  in  a  bread  dish 
on  the  sideboard. 

Put  on  the  olives.     Place  the  soup  tureen  and  the  hot 


224  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

plates  at  the  head  of  the  table,  pour  the  water,  and  announce 
the  dinner  by  saying  quietly,  "  Dinner  is  served." 

After  all  are  seated,  remove  the  cover  of  the  soup  ti 
placing  it  on  the  side  table. 

As  the  soup  is  ladled  out,  from  the  left  side  take  the  sou] 
plate  and  place  it  before  whoever  sits  at  the  right  of  the  mis- 
tress, standing  while  doing  so  on  the  right  side.     After  all 
have  been  served,  cover  the  tureen. 

Pass  the  celery. 

Eeplenish  water  glasses  if  this  is  necessary. 

When  all  have  finished  the  soup,  remove  the  tureen. 

Go  to  the  right  and  remove  each  plate  separately. 

Place  the  roast  before  the  carver,  and  the  vegetables  on 
the  side  table. 

Put  the  gravy  spoon  and  carving  knife  at  the  right,  and 
the  knife  and  the  fork  at  the  left. 

Serve  the  meat  in  the  manner  suggested  for  the  meat  at 
breakfast. 

Put  a  spoon  in  the  potato  dish  and  offer  it  on  the  tray  at 
the  left  of  each  person,  beginning  with  the  mistress  and 
passing  to  her  right. 

Serve  the  other  vegetables  in  the  same  way.  Nowadays 
vegetables  are  cooked  dry  enough  to  be  placed  on  the  dinner 
plates,  dispensing  almost  altogether  with  the  small  dishes 
formerly  used  for  vegetables. 

Pass  the  gravy  boat  and  spoon. 

Pass  olives. 

Eeplenish  water,  and  pass  the  bread  to  those  who  have 
none. 

When  all  have  finished,  take  the  carving  knife,  fork,  and 
spoon  to  the  kitchen  on  tray ;  remove  the  roast.  Then  take 
off  the  plates,  one  in  each  hand. 

Bring  in  the  salad  bowl,  first  putting  in  it  the  salad  knife 
and  fork,  and  place  it  before  the  mistress. 


THE   DINING   EOOM  225 


Serve  as  directed  for  the  meat  course. 

Pass  the  crackers  and  cheese. 

Eemove  this  course  in  the  following  order :  salad  bowl, 
salad  plates,  tumblers,  olives,  all  by  hand.  Put  the  pepper, 
salt,  etc.,  on  the  tray. 

Eemove  the  carving  cloth,  by  turning  the  corners  to- 
gether and  placing  it  on  the  tray. 

Eemove  with  a  crumb  scraper  all  crumbs,  bits  of  bread, 
etc. 

Bring  in  the  dessert  to  the  mistress  and  serve  as  indicated 
for  the  salad. 

If  fruit  is  to  be  served,  see  directions  for  breakfast  fruit. 

A  cup  of  coffee  may  be  put  at  the  right  of  each  person, 
and  cream  and  sugar  passed  at  his  left,  or  the  coffee  service 
may  be  carried  into  the  parlor,  or  the  dessert  may  be  re- 
moved, and  the  coffee  served  as  indicated  for  breakfast. 

The  directions  for  washing  dishes  have  been  given  under 
breakfast. 

Cut  glass  is  of  course  not  a  part  of  the  school  outfit,  yet 
direction  for  its  care  should  certainly  be  given  with  the 
washing  of  the  dinner  dishes. 

Cut  glass  may  be  most  easily  washed  in  warm  water  to 
which  a  little  ammonia  has  been  added.  Use  a  soft  brush 
—  one  comes  for  the  purpose  —  to  clean  it  thoroughly,  and 
as  it  is  wiped  place  it  on  a  towel,  or  better  still,  in  a  bed  of 
box  or  basswood  sawdust.  Pine  sawdust  will  not  do,  be- 
cause of  the  rosin  which  it  contains,  which  will  stick  to  the 
glass. 

When  the  glass  is  removed  from  the  sawdust,  or  from  the 
towel,  polish  it  with  a  soft  cloth. 

This  is,  of  course,  the  simplest  of  dinners.  To  make  it 
more  elaborate,  add  raw  oysters  or  clams  on  the  half  shell 
at  the  beginning,  and  fish  after  the  soup. 


226  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Oysters  should  be  served  on  top  of  a  bed  of  finely  cracked 
ice,  and  not  covered  with  it.  They  should  be  put  before 
each  place  just  before  dinner  is  announced.  Pass  at  once 
to  the  left  of  the  hostess  and  then  from  her  right,  a  tray  on 
which  quarter  lemons,  horse-radish,  red  pepper,  and  crackers 
have  been  arranged. 

Fish  is  served  with  a  sauce,  and  sometimes  with  cucum- 
bers, and  sometimes  with  potatoes. 

Each  of  these  courses  necessitates  an  extra  fork.  These 
may  be  placed  on  the  table  when  it  is  set,  but  it  is  more 
usual  nowadays  to  place  at  each  place  at  the  most  two 
forks,  and  to  put  the  others  on  just  before  bringing  in  the 
later  courses. 

If  a  still  more  elaborate  dinner  is  required,  it  is  usual  to 
insert  an  entree  after  the  fish,  and  to  put  game  or  perhaps 
another  entree  after  the  roast,  preceding  this  often  with  "a 
sherbet.  This  particularly  American  custom  of  introducing 
a  half-frozen  dish  into  the  middle  of  the  dinner  amuses  the 
epicures  on  the  other  side  of  the  water. 

"Why  do  you  do  it?"  they  say.  And  the  only  answer 
there  has  ever  been  given  them  is  the  decidedly  fatuous 
reply :  - 

"  Oh,  to  enable  us  to  go  on ! " 

And  thus  do  we  make  a  labor  of  our  pleasures,  and,  in 
passing,  ruin  the  digestion. 

But  with  such  dinners  as  these,  we,  as  teachers,  are  not 
concerned. 

Method. — Make  use  of  the  facts  given  with  chapter  on 
Foods  to  give  the  children  the  key  to  the  making  of 
menus. 

Have  clearly  in  your  own  mind,  not  an  ideal  dinner,  but 
the  best  to  which  you  can  hope  to  train  the  children. 

Put  on  the  board  the  skeleton  menu.  Allow  them  to 
suggest  other  dishes  that  might  be  substituted.  Lay  em- 


THE  DINING   BOOM  227 

phasis  on  the  relative  food  values,  but  do  not  forget  at  the 
same  time  the  necessity  for  variety. 

Let  the  children  make  out  menus  for  spring,  for  summer, 
for  autumn,  and  for  winter. 

What  dishes  are  needed  for  each  course?  Where  shall 
we  put  them  ?  Why  ?  How  ? 

Let  each  girl  prepare  a  menu,  a  list  of  the  dishes  for 
serving  it,  a  plan  for  the  setting  of  the  table ;  also  a 
plan  for  the  setting  of  the  side  table  and  the  sideboard,  if 
these  are  to  be  considered. 

Give  them  all  the  experience  in  practical  work  possible. 
See  also  the  section  on  "Breakfast." 

THE  THIRD  MEAL 

Facts.  —  When  the  dinner  is  served  at  night,  luncheon 
will  be  eaten  in  the  middle  of  the  day ;  but  with  the  mid- 
day dinner  an  evening  supper  is  the  rule. 

LUNCHEON  OR  SUPPER 

These  are  the  family  meals  in  which  "  left-overs "  are 
usually  consumed,  and  are  therefore  very  variable  in  their 
content. 

The  following  menu  is  the  average  perhaps :  — 

Meat  dish  Potatoes,  another  Vegetable 

Bread  and  Butter 

Fruit  and  Dessert 

Cocoa  or  Tea 

The  care  of  the  room  previous  to  luncheon  has  already 
been  given. 

Set  the  table  as  for  breakfast,  except  that  fruit  dish, 
plates,  knives,  and  spoons  should  be  on  the  sideboard. 

Put  flowers  or  a  plant  in  the  middle  of  the  table. 


228  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

Prepare  olives  or  pickles.  The  olives  must  be  kept  in 
the  refrigerator  until  the  last  moment,  but  this  is  not 
necessary  with  pickles. 

Serve  precisely  as  indicated  for  the  same  courses  in  the 
section  on  breakfast  and  dinner. 

Method.  —  It  seems  scarcely  worth  while  to  make  more 
than  a  class-room  lesson  of  these  meals.  The  principles 
have  been  taught  in  the  lessons  on  breakfast  and  dinner. 

By  all  means,  however,  discuss  these  meals  from  the  point 
of  view  of  foods  (see  chapter  on  Foods),  and  let  the  students 
make  menus  subject  to  your  criticism  and  direction. 

It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  faulty  menus  put  on  the 
board  and  criticised  with  reasons  by  the  children  them- 
selves. 

WEEKLY  CLEANING 

Facts.  —  Utensils  Needed.  Cheese-cloth  dusters,  brushes, 
feather  duster,  covers,  broom,  flannel  or  cotton  flannel,  car- 
pet beaters,  soap,  ammonia,  newspapers,  turpentine  or  coal 
oil. 

Clean  the  chairs,  and  take  them  out  of  the  room. 

If  there  is  carving  on  them,  a  brush  must  be  used.  Then 
rub  with  a  soft  cloth.  Leather  may  be  washed  with  a  cloth 
wrung  out  of  hot  milk.  Kub  until  dry. 

Eoll  up  the  rug.  Take  it  out  in  the  yard  and  hang  it  up 
on  the  line,  —  not  by  one  corner  only,  since  this  will  cause  it 
to  ravel  later. 

Put  all  the  dishes  from  the  sideboard  and  ornaments 
from  the  mantel  on  a  paper  which  covers  the  table.  Cover 
them. 

Deftly  shake  out  and  tie  back  the  hangings. 

Open  the  windows.     Shut  all  drawers  and  doors. 

Dust  the  frames  of  the  pictures.  Brush  the  backs  with 
a  coarse  brush. 


THE   DINING   BOOM  229 


Dust  the  tops  of  curtain  poles  and  of  mouldings. 

Cover  the  pictures  with  unbleached  muslin  kept  for  the 
purpose. 

Brush  the  dust  from  the  corners  of  the  window-sills. 
Wipe  with  a  cheese-cloth  duster. 

Shake  the  duster  out-of-doors. 

Cover  the  broom  with  clean  flannel  or  cotton  flannel. 
Brush  down  the  walls. 

Wipe  up  the  floor  with  a  damp  cloth.  This  may  be  tied 
around  a  broom. 

When  it  is  perfectly  dry,  rub  it  over  with  a  very  small 
quantity  of  coal  oil  or  turpentine,  which  may  be  applied  by 
hand,  using  clean  cotton  waste,  or  by  putting  it  on  a  clean 
cloth  tied  over  the  broom. 

For  directions  for  cleaning  windows  see  the  section  on 
"Cleansing,"  in  the  chapter  on  The  Kitchen. 

Clean  in  the  same  way  mirrors  and  glass  doors. 

With  carpet  beaters,  give  the  rug  a  thorough  cleaning. 

Belay  the  rug. 

Dust  the  room  thoroughly. 

Shake  all  dusters  out-of-doors. 

Bring  back  the  chairs. 

Dust  and  replace  the  ornaments. 

Remove  covers. 

Look  over  all  the  furniture,  the  woodwork,  the  hangings. 
See  that  everything  is  whale  and  in  good  order. 

Wash  all  cloths  in  soap-suds  with  a  little  ammonia  added 
to  it.  Hang  them  in  the  air  to  dry. 

Clean  brushes  and  hang  them  up. 

Brasses  and  Silver.  —  These  must  be  cleaned  in  the  kitchen. 
The  commercial  preparations  for  cleaning  brass  all  contain 
an  acid.  If  this  is  not  neutralized  or  removed,  the  metal 
will  quickly  tarnish.  Therefore,  after  cleaning  rub  the 
articles  thoroughly  with  whiting.  See  also  the  section  on 


230  HANDBOOK  OF  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

"  Cleaning,"  in  the  chapter  on  The  Kitchen.  Except  in  a 
moist  climate,  brass  once  properly  cleaned  will  keep  clean 
for  a  long  time. 

For  the  weekly  cleaning  of  silver  only  hot  water  to  which 
a  little  ammonia  has  been  added,  and  soft  cloths  or  a 
chamois  for  drying  and  polishing,  are  necessary.  Whiting 
should  not  be  used  oftener  than  once  a  month.  For  this 
monthly  cleaning  cover  the  table  with  newspapers.  Wash 
the  silver  in  hot  suds  and  dry  it  thoroughly. 

Put  some  whiting  in  a  saucer,  mixing  it  to  a  paste  with 
dilute  ammonia.  Eub  this  mixture  on  the  articles  to  be 
cleaned,  with  a  soft  cloth. 

Put  each  on  the  paper  to  dry. 

When  perfectly  dry  rub  off  the  whiting  with  a  clean, 
soft  cloth,  using  a  soft  brush  for  the  chasing,  and  the 
chamois  for  the  final  polish.  If  the  silver  is  properly 
washed  and  dried  each  day,  it  will  seldom  be  necessary  to 
clean  it. 

Method.  —  Will  the  daily  cleaning  and  airing  of  the  din- 
ing room  keep  it  in  good  order?  Why  not? 

In  cleaning  a  room  what  must  be  shut?  What  open? 
Why? 

What  would  you  do  first  ?     Why  ? 

What  utensils  will  you  need  for  this  ?  (Put  on  the  black- 
board the  word  Utensils,  and  write  under  the  articles  given.) 

What  next?    Why? 

Continue  in  this  fashion  until  the  process,  its  order,  with 
reasons  and  utensils,  have  all  been  given. 

Give  the  children  practice,  under  criticism,  if  possible. 

After  some  practice,  require  them  to  make  a  list  of  the 
order  of  cleaning  and  of  the  utensils  necessary. 


THE  DINING   ROOM  231 


TABLE  MANNERS 

lere  are  three  ways  to  teach  the  subject :  — 

(1)  By  example. 

(2)  By  precept. 

(3)  By  eternal  vigilance. 

And  all  three  ways  must  be  employed  to  accomplish  the 
object  indicated,  viz.,  automatic  good  breeding,  based  on 
quick  intelligence  and  a  kindly  heart. 

Obviously  the  grade  teacher  has  comparatively  small 
opportunity  to  do  this  work,  but  she  can  make  a  beginning, 
which  most  mothers  will  gladly  supplement,  or  she  may  in 
her  teaching  supplement  what  many  mothers  have  already 
begun. 

Let  her  establish  in  conversation  that  the  basis  of  good 
manners  is  deference  to  the  comfort  of  others.  Then  make 
these  facts  clear  to  all :  — 

Consideration  of  others'  demands  on  the  part  of  the  child. 

(1)  That  she  should  offend  neither  the  eye  nor  the  ear. 

Therefore,  she  must  be  (a)  scrupulously  clean;  (b)  erect 
in  her  bearing,  neither  lolling  against  the  chair  nor  resting 
her  elbows  on  the  table;  and  (c)  above  all  eat  quietly  and 
slowly. 

In  this  connection  the  following  details  of  customary 
etiquette  may  be  taught :  — 

Spread  the  napkin  across  the  lap,  do  not  tuck  it  in  at 
the  neck. 

Drink  from  the  side  of  all  spoons,  never  from  the  front. 

Soup  should  be  swallowed  quietly  from  the  side,  and  not 
the  end  of  the  spoon. 

Do  not  tip  the  soup  plate. 

Break  bread  into  a  smaller  piece.  Do  not  bite  mouthfuls 
from  it. 

Do  not  play  with  either  the  food  or  the  table  utensils. 


232  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Wipe  the  lips  before  drinking. 

(2)  That  she  should  lighten  the  duties  of  the  carver. 
Therefore,  she  must  (a)  promptly  indicate  her  preference 

for  any  particular  cut,  if  he  asks  her  to  do  so,  and  (6)  help 
herself  promptly  to  dishes  that  are  passed  her. 

(3)  That  she  should  so  manage  all  small  details  that  the 
possibility  of  accident  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.    Therefore, 

(a)  In  sending  a  plate  back  for  a  second  helping  she 
should  put  the  knife  and  fork  straight  on  the  plate,  and  a 
little  to  one  side.  This  will  give  room  for  the  food,  and 
obviate  the  possibility  of  their  slipping  from  the  plate. 

(6)  The  spoon  must  never  be  left  in  the  cup,  but  placed 
on  the  saucer. 

(c)  The  soup  spoon  should  be  filled  by  moving  it  away 
from  the  person. 

(4)  That  as  host  or  hostess  she  should  endeavor  to  make 
all  others  comfortable. 

Therefore,  in  a  family  each  should  remember  the  tastes 
of  the  other  members,  and  give  to  each  the  cut  of  meat,  the 
amount  of  sugar  and  cream  preferred  by  each,  without  ask- 
ing. In  the  case  of  guests,  it  is  of  course  necessary  to 
ask. 

With  regard  to  passing  things  at  the  table,  consideration 
of  the  comfort  of  others  demands  that  if  there  is  a  waitress 
nothing  whatever  should  be  passed  by  any  member  of  the 
family.  If  there  is  no  waitress,  however,  then  with  each 
dish  one  must  think  of  the  possible  wants  of  her  neighbor, 
and  see  that  these  are  satisfied. 

In  the  latter  case  some  little  courtesy  of  expression  is 
necessary  in  offering  your  service.  Instead  of  saying 
abruptly,  "  Will  you  have  the  salt,"  for  example,  the  phrase 
may  be  softened  into  "Let  me  pass  you  the  salt,"  or  "Allow 
me,"  or  "May  I,"  etc. 

Plants  and  Flowers.  —  The   dining  room  ought  to  be  a 


THE  DINING   KOOM  233 


bright,  sunny  room.  If  it  be  so,  by  all  means  raise  a  few 
plants. 

The  cheapest  house  plants  are  geraniums.  In  the  houses 
of  the  well-to-do  they  need  intelligent  care,  but,  as  doubtless 
others  have  observed,  in  the  houses  of  the  poor  they  nour- 
ish in  tin  cans,  and  under  what  seems  to  be  unfavorable 
conditions. 

The  secret  of  this,  it  seems  to  me,  is  that  the  houses  of 
the  poor  are,  perforce,  cool  to  cold,  and  the  geranium,  like 
most  plants,  cannot  endure  hot,  dry  air.  Neither  can  we, 
only  we  will  not  believe  it. 

The  maximum  temperature  produced  by  artificial  heat 
should  be  68°  F.  for  ordinarily  healthy  people. 

Geraniums  intended  for  house  blooming  should  be  pre- 
pared for  it  during  the  summer.  To  do  this,  follow  the 
following  simple  rules :  — 

(1)  Keep  them  in  their  pots. 

(2)  As  soon  as  they  are  five  inches  high,  pinch  off  the 
top,  thus  forcing  them  to  develop  side  buds,  and  thus  mak- 
ing compact,  bushy  plants.     Keep  up  the  pinching  process 
until  the  shape  of  the  plant  .suits  you. 

When  you  are  satisfied  with  the  plant,  withdraw  its 
supply  of  water,  giving  it  only  enough  to  keep  it  from 
drying  up. 

Remove  every  bud. 

These  last  two  things  give  the  plant  the  rest  that  it 
needs,  so  that  it  can  work  hard  during  the  winter. 

Before  bringing  them  into  the  house  repot  them.  This  is 
done  by  shaking  the  plants  out  of  the  pot,  shaking  off  as 
much  soil  as  possible,  repotting  in  fresh,  rich  soil,  with 
plenty  of  broken  crock  in  the  bottom  for  drainage,  and 
watering  them  thoroughly. 

The  pots  should  be  small.  Otherwise  the  plants  will  run 
to  roots  and  foliage,  and  will  not  bloom. 


234  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Leave  them  out-of-doors  as  long  as  possible. 

When  you  bring  them  in,  put  them  in  the  sunniest 
window  of  the  coolest  room. 

Shower  the  leaves  with  a  hand  sprinkler,  or  by  simply 
holding  the  foliage  under  a  spigot,  breaking  the  force  of  the 
fall,  and  at  the  same  time  scattering  the  water  with  the 
hand. 

Do  not  water  the  earth  too  frequently.  Wait  until  the 
surface  is  dry,  and  then  give  the  plant  a  thorough  wetting. 
The  water  should  run  through  to  the  saucer. 

About  once  a  week  give  them  some  of  the  numerous 
ammoniacal  plant  foods.  I  have  used  Bowker's  with  great 
success ;  presumably  the  others  are  equally  good. 

The  best  geraniums  for  blooming  are  the  zonias,  or  bud- 
ding geraniums,  of  which  the  species  are  very  numerous. 

The  double  ivy-leaf  geraniums  are  very  beautiful,  but  the 
other  fancy  kinds  are  not  very  good  for  house  plants,  par- 
ticularly for  the  amateur. 

If  your  windows  are  not  sunny,  probably  begonias  will 
flourish  best  of  all  the  flowering  plants. 

Give  them  plenty  of  plant  food.  If  they  drop  their 
leaves,  it  is  either  because  the  room  is  too  hot  and  dry  for 
them,  or  because  they  are  watered  too  much. 

The  easiest  plants  of  all  to  care  for,  and,  in  the  long  run, 
the  most  satisfactory,  if  one  does  not  expect  bloom,  are :  — 

Aspidistras,  excellent  plants  of  which  may  be  bought  from 
fifty  cents  to  a  dollar. 

Rubber  plants,  costing  from  fifty  cents  to  a  dollar  and  a 
half,  for  small  to  medium  specimens. 

Pandanus  (screw  pines),  costing  about  the  same  as  the 
rubber  plants. 

Palms,  which,  however,  cost  considerably  more,  two  dol- 
lars being  about  the  minimum  cost  of  a  medium  sized  plant. 
The  palms  most  useful  for  the  house  are  the  Kentias, 


THE  DINING  EOOM  235 


Phoenixes  (date  palms),  Latania  (fan  palm),  Cococos  (cocoa- 
nut  palm),  and  Areca.  Of  these,  the  best  species  for  the 
purpose  are,  perhaps,  Kentia  belmoreana,  Phoenix  redinata 
and  sylvestris,  Latania  borbonica,  Cocos  weddeliana,  Areca 
lutescens. 

But  the  very  best  species  of  palms  need  more  care  than 
the  plants  mentioned  before  them.  Their  leaves  must  be 
kept  clean  by  sponging  them,  they  must  get  fresh  air,  and 
be  shielded  from  the  gas. 

Cycads  are  among  the  best  house  plants,  but  their  cost 
(from  five  to  ten  dollars  for  a  medium  size)  makes  it  scarcely 
worth  while  to  discuss  them  here. 

Flowers,  like  plants,  need  a  cool  atmosphere. 

Strip  the  leaves  from  the  part  of  the  stem  under  water. 
Cut  off  the  ends  of  the  stems,  for  an  inch  or  so,  every  day, 
and  do  the  cutting  under  water,  so  that  the  cut  surface  will 
not  become  full  of  air.  Change  the  water  every  day.  Keep 
them  in  a  cold  room,  except  when  they  are  needed  for  the 
table. 

Flowers  so  cared  for  should  last  at  least  a  week. 

An  aquarium  may  be  an  ornament  to  the  dining  room. 

Method. — In  these  days,  every  schoolroom  is  provided 
with  plants  and  flowers.  The  most  efficient  way  to  teach 
children  to  care  for  them  is  to  let  each,  in  turn,  take  care 
of  those  in  the  school,  after  definite  directions  from  you, 
and  under  your  careful  supervision. 

LAMPS 

Since  lamps  are  a  necessity  in  some  parts  of  the  country  ? 
and  considered  ornamental  in  others,  it  will  be  well  for  the 
teacher  to  give  a  lesson  on  their  care. 

Cleanliness  is  the  first  essential,  of  course.  Since  we  are 
dealing  with  oil,  this  can  only  be  secured  by  strict  attention 
to  the  following  rules :  — 


236  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

I.  Saturate  the  part  of  the  new  wick  which  is  just  above 
the  burner ;  put  the  burner  in  the  clean,  empty  lamp.     Light 
the  wick,  and  put  on  the   chimney.     Open  the  window, 
so  that  there  is  no  draft  on  the  chimney,  and  let  the  oil 
burn  out.     Rub  the  wick  even  with  a  bit  of  soft  paper,  but 
be  careful  to  see  that  none  of  the  charred  bits  are  on  the 
burner. 

II.  Fill  the  lamp  carefully.     Wipe  the  burner  and  other 
parts  of  the  lamp.     See  that  the  chimney  is  clean.     Light 
the  lamp,  keeping  the  flame  low  until  the  burner  is  heated. 
Then  turn  it  up  as  high  as  possible. 

III.  Blow  out  the  light. 

IV.  Turn  the  wick  down,  so  that  the  oil  will  not  ooze  out 
at  the  top. 

V.  Boil  the  burners,  when  they  become  very  oily,  in 
water  in  which  washing  soda  has  been  dissolved  —  a  tea- 
spoonful  to  the  quart  is  the  usual  rule. 

VI.  Mica  chimneys  are  more  expensive  than  glass,  but 
they  are  also  less  fragile.     They  will  never  break,  but  they 
scratch  easily.     If  glass  chimneys  are  used,  put  them  into 
cold  water,  and  bring  it  slowly  to  a  boil.     Then  let  them 
slowly  cool.     This  tempers  the  glass,  so  that  it  is  much  less 
likely  to  crack. 

Method.  —  In  what  respect  are  lamps  difficult  to  keep 
clean  ? 

How  shall  we  (a)  prevent  and  (b)  cure  this  oiliness  ? 

Why  will  soda  clean  the  burners  ?  See  section  on  "  Clean- 
ing," in  the  chapter  on  The  Kitchen. 


CHAPTER  X  — (ADVANCED  COURSE) 

BREAD,   CAKE,   AND   PASTRY 

BY  MRS.  ALICE  PELOUBET  NORTON,  A.M., 

GRADUATE  OF  SMITH  COLLEGE  AND  OF  THE  BOSTON  NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  HOUSEHOLD 
ARTS  ;  LECTURER  AT  LASELL  SEMINARY,  AND  AT  THE  Y.  "W.  C.  A.  SCHOOL  OF 
DOMESTIC  SCIENCE,  BOSTON  ;  TEACHER  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  IN  THE  BHOOKLINB 
HIGH  SCHOOL. 

"Here  is  bread  which  strengthens  man's  heart,  and  therefore  is 
called  the  staff  of  life."  —  MATTHEW  HENRY'S  "  Commentaries." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

One  of  the  best  books  to  be  consulted  by  the  teacher  on  the  general 
subject  of  bread,  especially  with  reference  to  its  composition,  digesti- 
bility, and  food  value  is  The  Dietetic  Value  of  Bread,  by  Goodfellow 
(Macmillan  &  Co.).  An  excellent  statement  of  the  chemical  processes 
involved  in  breadmaking  is  to  be  found  in  The  Chemistry  of  Cooking 
and  Cleaning,  by  Mrs.  Richards  and  Miss  Elliott,  (Home  Science  Pub. 
Co.),  pp.  27-42,  52,  54.  Food,  by  A.  H.  Church,  is  a  standard  author- 
ity (Chapman  &  Hall).  The  Chemistry  of  Cookery,  by  Matthieu 
Williams,  is  suggestive  and  interesting  (Appleton  &  Co.).  Practical, 
Sanitary,  and  Economic  Cooking  (the  Lamb  Prize  Essay),  by  Mrs. 
Abel,  should  be  read  from  beginning  to  end;  pp.  91-106  discuss 
bread.  An  account  of  the  commercial  preparation  of  yeast  may  be 
found  in  Chemistry  in  Daily  Life,  by  Lassar-Cohn  (Lippincott  Co.), 
pp.  87.  96,  108.  A  concise  statement  of  the  main  facts  regarding 
yeast  and  fermentation  may  be  found  in  pp.  184-200  of  Sedgwick 
and  Wilson's  General  Biology  (H.  Holt  &  Co.).  The  Science  and  Art 
of  Bread  Making,  by  William  Jago,  is  an  exhaustive  and  scientific 
treatise  on  the  subject  (Sinipkin,  Marshall,  &  Co.). 

Two  pamphlets  published  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
are :  The  Carbohydrates  of  Wheat,  Maize,  Flour,  and  Bread,  Bulletin 
No.  34,  and  Food  and  Nutrition  Investigations  in  New  Jersey,  Bulletin 
No.  35. 

237 


238  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

The  practical  side  of  the  question  may  be  studied  in  Mrs.  Lincoln's 
well-known  books,  in  Miss  Farmer's  Boston  Cooking-School  Cook 
Book,  in  Mrs.  Swing's  Bread  and  Bread  Making,  or  in  any  of  the 
good  recipe  books  on  the  market.  Excellent  individual  recipes  by 
Miss  Spring  may  be  found  in  the  American  Kitchen  Magazine  for 
April,  1898. 

Further  references  that  will  be  found  useful  in  presenting  the  sub- 
ject, and  making  it  attractive  and  interesting,  are  :  Wheat :  Commer- 
cial Geography,  Chisholm ;  Commercial  Geography,  Tilden ;  Scribner's 
Monthly,  vol.  22,  p.  531 ;  Popular  Science  Monthly,  vol.  50,  p.  101. 
Flour :  The  Nation,  vol.  54,  p.  424.  Yeast :  Huxley,  Manchester  Sci- 
ence Lectures.  Bread :  Lippincott,  vol.  58,  p.  704.  Bread  in  the 
East :  Penny  Magazine,  vol.  3,  p.  2.  Bread  in  Spain :  Once  a  Week, 
vol.  1,  p.  217.  Bread  and  Cake  Traditions:  American  Kitchen  Maga- 
zine, vol.  7,  p.  3.  Tortillas:  American  Kitchen  Magazine,  vol.  7, 
p.  195 ;  Boy  Traveller  in  Mexico,  Knox,  p.  56.  Festal  Cakes :  All  the 
Year  Bound,  vol.  40,  p.  79.  Biscuit  Making  (History  of  Crackers): 
Chambers's  Journal,  April,  1899. 

BREAD 

Bread  was  one  of  the  earliest  foods  of  man.  That  it  was 
used  long  before  history  was  written,  the  discoveries  of 
modern  times  have  shown  us.  In  Switzerland,  in  the  lake 
dwellings  of  prehistoric  times,  there  have  been  found  stones 
for  grinding  meal  and  baking  bread,  and  even  bread  itself, 
in  the  form  of  round  cakes.  The  first  mention  of  bread  in 
literature  is  in  Genesis,  in  the  words  of  Abraham  to  the 
angels,  "I  will  fetch  a  morsel  of  bread."  The  Egyptians 
knew  the  art  of  breadmaking,  and  baked  loaves  and  cakes 
in  great  variety  of  form  and  flavor.  One  ancient  Greek 
writer  names  sixty-two  kinds  of  bread  in  use ;  and  in  Rome 
there  were  many  bakeries,  where  not  only  was  the  baking 
of  bread,  done,  but  the  grain  was  pounded  and  sifted,  to 
prepare  it  for  use. 

In  our  own  day  bread  is  found  in  a  great  variety  of  forms, 
many  of  them  characteristic  of  certain  nations;  familiar 


BREAD  239 

examples  are  the  black  bread  of  Germany,  the  oat  cakes  of 
Scotland,  the  hard  rye  cakes  of  northern  Sweden,  baked 
only  twice  in  the  year,  and  the  passover  cakes  or  unleavened 
bread  of  the  Jews.  Bread  forms  the  staple  food  of  a  large 
section  of  the  human  race,  and  is  often  the  only  means  of 
subsistence  of  the  very  poor.  Mr.  Goodfellow,  in  some 
investigations  made  in  London,  found  that  in  the  worst 
districts  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  children  ate  only  bread  for 
the  twenty-one  meals  of  the  week,  while  forty  per  cent  more 
had  other  food  only  two  or  three  times  a  week. 

It  is  essential  that  so  universal  a  food  should  be  nutritious, 
palatable,  and  digestible.  To  fulfil  these  conditions,  the 
flour  used  must  be  rich  in  nutriment;  the  bread  must  be 
light  and  porous,  that  as  large  a  surface  as  possible  may 
be  exposed  to  the  digestive  juices;  and  the  cooking  must 
develop  the  flavor,  and  render  the  food  materials  more 
assimilable.  Wheat  produces  a  nutritious  flour,  containing 
all  the  food  principles,  though  not  in  ideal  proportions ;  it 
makes  light  bread,  since  it  contains  a  large  proportion  of 
gluten,  a  sticky,  tenacious,  nitrogenous  substance,  which 
enables  the  dough  to  retain  the  gas  formed  in  it;  and  it 
produces  bread  in  which  the  starch  is  in  a  digestible  form. 
Wheat  has  the  further  advantage  over  other  grains :  that 
the  kernel  can  be  easily  separated  from  the  chaff ;  that  the 
yield  of  flour  is  large;  that  it  is  grown  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  world,  in  large  amounts.  In  1895  there  were 
more  than  2,400,000,000  bushels  produced,  largely  in  the 
United  States,  Kussia,  France,  and  India. 

Wheat  is  a  plant  belonging  to  the  grass  family.  It  is 
classified  as  spring  wheat  and  winter  wheat,  according  to 
the  time  of  sowing,  the  winter  wheat  being  planted  in  the 
fall.  It  is  also  known  as  hard  and  soft,  and  as  red  or  white 
wheat.  The  very  hard  variety  is  grown  in  Italy,  and  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  macaroni.  If  a  grain  of  wheat 


240  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


be  soaked  for  a  few  hours  in  water  and  a  thin  cross-section 
cut,  there  may  be  plainly  seen  under  the  microscope  four 
distinct  layers.  The  two  outer  coats  are  bran,  the  third, 
also  considered  part  of  the  bran,  is  made  up  of  square  or 
oblong  proteid  cells ;  and  the  inner  part,  or  endosperm,  con- 
sists of  large  cells  of  irregular  shape,  containing  starch  cells 
lying  in  gluten.  If  a  drop  of  iodine  be  put  upon  the  section, 
the  starch  will  become  blue,  and  be  clearly  distinguishable 
from  the  rest  of  the  grain.  The  composition  of  wheat  varies 
with  the  kind,  the  climate,  and  other  conditions.  Professor 
At  water  gives  as  the  average  composition  of  one  hundred 
samples  of  wheat  flour :  water,  12.5  %  ;  proteid,  11.3  %  ;  fat, 
1.1  %  ;  carbohydrates,  74.6  %  5  mineral  matter,  0.5  %. 

The  manufacture  of  flour  from  wheat  is  a  complicated 
process,  and  its  methods  change  from  year  to  year.  Its 
essential  parts  are  as  follows :  first,  the  cleaning  of  the 
wheat,  and  the  separation  of  the  good  grains  from  the  im- 
perfect ones  and  from  foreign  material ;  second,  the  crush- 
ing or  cutting  of  the  wheat,  either  by  the  old  method  of 
grinding  between  stones,  or  by  the  new  process  in  which 
the  grains  are  passed  between  a  series  of  grooved  rollers; 
third,  the  bolting  or  sifting  by  which  the  bran  is  separated 
from  the  "middlings,"  and  the  different  grades  of  flour 
from  one  another.  In  the  whole  wheat  flour  the  bran  is 
ground  with  the  middlings,  and  forms  part  of  the  flour. 

Though  the  earliest  form  of  bread  was  made  simply  by 
mixing  flour  and  meal  with  water,  and  baking  it,  the  tough, 
hard  cake  thus  formed  was  neither  very  digestible  nor  wholly 
palatable.  Experience  probably  taught  that  a  light  porous 
dough  was  more  desirable,  and  so  a  leavened  bread  came 
into  use.  Doughs,  or  batters,  are  made  light  by  means  of 
some  gas,  which,  by  its  expansion,  forms  a  spongy,  porous 
mass.  Sometimes  air  is  the  gas  used,  and  is  beaten  into  the 
batter  to  make  it  light,  as  in  the  case  of  sponge  cake ;  but 


BREAD  241 


more  often  carbon  dioxide  (often  called  carbonic  acid  gas)  is 
introduced.  Carbon  dioxide  may  be  formed  in  the  dough  in 
two  ways :  first,  by  the  action  of  an  acid  upon  a  carbonate,  such 
as  baking  soda ;  and  second,  by  the  growth  of  yeast,  and  the 
consequent  fermentation  of  sugar.  The  latter  is  the  oldest 
method  of  producing  the  result,  and  in  spite  of  many  efforts 
to  introduce  other  processes,  is  still  the  most  satisfactory. 
The  ancient  leaven  was  made  by  mixing  flour  and  water 
together,  and  letting  it  stand  until  it  fermented,  and  in 
some  places  "  salt  rising  bread "  is  still  made  in  the  same 
way.  The  fermentation  is  caused  by  the  wild  yeast  cells 
that  are  always  floating  in  the  air,  and  that  fall  into  the 
exposed  liquid.  It  is  these  wild  yeasts  which  cause  the 
change  of  apple  juice  into  cider.  The  objection  to  this 
method  of  obtaining  yeast  is  that  bacteria  and  moulds,  as 
well  as  different  varieties  of  yeast,  find  access  to  the  liquid, 
and  often  cause  acetic  or  other  acid  fermentation,  and  'give 
a  sour  or  bitter  taste  to  the  bread. 

Yeast  is  a  tiny,  one -celled  plant,  about  one  two- 
thousandth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  belonging  to  the  class  of 
budding  fungi.  The  scientific  name  is  Saccharomyces  cerevi- 
sece.  Under  the  microscope  the  yeast  cell  is  seen  to  be 
round  or  oval,  consisting  of  a  cell  wall  filled  with  proto- 
plasm. In  the  young,  fresh  cell,  the  cell  contents  appear 
clear  and  homogeneous;  but  as  the  yeast  grows  older,  the 
protoplasm  becomes  granular,  and  fat  droplets  and  vacuoles 
appear.  If  a  growing  cell  be  watched,  a  bulging  of  the  wall 
near  one  end  of  the  cell  will  be  seen,  and  this  gradually 
increases  until  a  new  cell  is  formed.  This  daughter  cell 
finally  becomes  detached  from  the  parent  cell,  but  often  it 
first  forms  buds  in  its  turn,  so  that  a  chain  of  cells  is  seen, 
each  cell  representing  an  individual  plant.  This  method  of 
reproduction  is  called  budding.  Under  certain  conditions 
of  temperature  and  moisture,  there  appear  in  the  interior  of 


242  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

the  yeast  cells  two,  three,  or  four  rounded  bodies  called 
spores.  These  expand,  and  become  surrounded  with  a  wall ; 
the  wall  of  the  mother  cell  is  ruptured,  and  the  spores  are 
set  free  as  new  cells,  to  bud,  and  produce  a  new  generation 
of  yeast. 

Yeast,  like  other  living  things,  requires  food.  Moisture, 
oxygen,  some  nitrogenous  matter,  salts  or  mineral  matter, 
and  carbohydrates,  especially  sugary  substances,  are  needed 
for  its  growth.  The  temperature  is  also  an  important  fac- 
tor, 70°  to  85°  F.  being  the  most  favorable  for  active  growth. 
The  cells,  when  moist,  are  killed  at  a  temperature  varying 
from  130°  to  150°  F.,  though,  when  dry,  they  can  sometimes 
withstand  a  temperature  of  212°  F.  Yeast  is  rendered  in- 
active by  a  low  temperature,  though  it  can  withstand  cold 
better  than  heat. 

Three  kinds  of  yeast  are  in  use  for  breadmaking,  liquid 
(home-made  or  baker's),  dry,  and  compressed  yeast.  Liquid 
yeast  is  prepared  from  potatoes,  sometimes  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  few  hops,  sugar,  and  enough  yeast  to  start  the 
fermentation.  It  is  used  less  than  a  few  years  ago,  since 
the  convenient  yeast  cake  has  come  into  use.  Dried  yeast 
finds  its  sale  chiefly  among  those  too  far  from  market  to 
procure  fresh  yeast.  It  is  possible  to  make  good  bread  with 
it,  but  not  so  easy  as  with  fresh  yeast. 

In  most  general  use,  at  least  near  the  large  centres  of 
population,  is  compressed  yeast,  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  whiskey.  It  is  prepared  by  skimming  the  masses 
of  yeast  from  the  surface  of  the  fermenting  liquid,  sifting  it 
to  take  out  all  coarse  particles  of  material,  and  washing  by 
repeatedly  adding  and  drawing  off  fresh  water.  Starch  is 
then  added,  and  the  whole  mass  is  formed  in  large  cakes 
and  sent  to  the  point  of  distribution,  where  it  is  cut  and 
wrapped  in  tinfoil.  One  cake,  sold  for  two  cents,  is  said  to 
contain  about  sixty  billion  yeast  cells.  The  advantage  of 


BREAD  243 

this  form  of  yeast  is  that  it  contains  only  one  species  of 
yeast,  and  that,  when  it  is  fresh,  there  are  fewer  bacteria 
present  than  in  most  home-made  yeasts.  A  fresh  cake  is 
essential  for  good  results. 

The  property  of  yeast  of  which  we  make  use  in  bread- 
making  is  its  power  to  change  certain  kinds  of  sugar  into 
alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide ;  that  is,  to  ferment  sugar. 
When  yeast  is  added  to  the  flour  and  liquid,  which  are  the 
essential  ingredients  of  bread,  and  the  whole  is  allowed  to 
stand  at  a  temperature  of  from  70°  to  80°  F.,  complicated 
chemical  changes  take  place.  The  most  important  of  these 
are :  first,  the  conversion  of  part  of  the  starch  of  the  flour 
into  sugar,  accomplished  by  a  ferment  sent  out  by  the  yeast, 
or  perhaps  by  a  ferment  present  in  the  flour  itself ;  second, 
the  change  of  the  sugar  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide,  a 
direct  result  of  the  growth  of  the  yeast.  The  chemical 
reactions  may  be  expressed  as  follows  : 

Starch  Water  Sugar 

C6H1005  +  H20  =  C6H1206  (dextrose) 
or, 

2  C6HioO5  +  H2O  =  Ci2H22On  (maltose) 

. .    ,    .        Carbon 
Dextrose  Alcohol       Dioxide 

C6Hi206  (+yeast)=2C2H6O  +  2C02 

Maltose 
Ci2H22On  -f  H20  (+  yeast)  =  4  C2H60  +  4  C02 

If  bacteria  are  present,  a  further  chemical  change  may  take 
place,  and  the  alcohol  be  converted  into  acetic  acid,  thus 
making  the  bread  sour. 
The  reaction  is 

Alcohol     Oxygen   Acetic  Acid      Water 
C2H60  +  O   =  C2H4O2  +  H2O 

If  perfectly  pure  yeast  could  be  obtained,  sour  bread  would 
be  unknown.  Since  this  is  not  practicable  at  present,  we 


244  HANDBOOK   OF  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

must  guard  against  the  souring  of  the  dough  by  stopping 
the  fermentation  at  the  right  stage,  and  by  avoiding  a  high 
temperature,  favorable  to  bacterial  growth  and  deleterious 
to  the  best  development  of  the  yeast. 

The  baking  of  bread  accomplishes  several  objects:  the 
living  yeast  and  other  organisms  are  killed ;  the  alcohol  and 
carbon  dioxide  are  driven  off ;  most  of  the  starch  grains  are 
burst,  and  the  starch  is  thoroughly  cooked  and  thus  made 
more  digestible ;  some  of  the  starch  is  changed  to  dextrin,  a 
more  soluble  and  therefore  more  easily  digested  carbohy- 
drate; the  loaf  is  browned  by  the  change  of  some  of  the 
sugar  to  caramel.  To  accomplish  these  results,  to  stop  the 
fermentation  quickly  that  the  bread  may  not  sour,  and  to 
make  certain  that  sufficient  heat  penetrates  to  the  middle  of 
the  loaf,  a  temperature  of  from  400°  to  450°  F.  is  necessary. 

The  process  of  breadmaking,  as  we  practise  it,  consists  in 
mixing  flour  with  a  liquid,  either  water  or  milk,  adding 
yeast,  salt,  and  often  sugar  and  some  kind  of  fat ;  allowing 
the  mixture  to  rise ;  shaping  it  into  loaves  and  letting  it  rise 
again;  and  baking  it.  The  essential  ingredients  are  the 
flour,  liquid,  and  yeast.  Sugar  may  be  added  to  hasten  the 
process,  since  fermentation  takes  place  more  quickly 
when  it  is  present,  and  shortening  (or  fat)  makes  the  loaf 
more  tender.  Milk  gives  a  more  tender  bread  than  water, 
but  one  which  will  not  keep  so  long,  and  for  some  people  is 
less  digestible,  because  of  the  possibility  of  the  formation  of 
lactic  acid  from  the  milk.  If  milk  is  used,  it  must  be 
scalded  to  destroy  the  bacteria  present.  A  good  result  is 
given  by  the  use  of  half  water  and  half  milk.  Bread  is 
usually  kneaded  to  insure  thorough  mixing  of  the  in- 
gredients and  even  distribution  of  the  gas  bubbles  in  the 
dough.  Kneading  may  also  render  the  gluten  more  elastic. 
Excellent  bread  may  be  made  without  kneading,  however,  if 
care  is  taken  to  mix  thoroughly  the  materials.  Many  bread- 


BREAD  245 


makers  like  to  knead  slightly  because  the  "feel"  of  the 
dough  tells  more  surely  than  anything  else  when  the  right 
consistency  has  been  obtained.  The  kneading,  if  preferred, 
may  be  done  between  the  first  and  second  rising.  If  done 
then  it  is  more  effective  in  evenly  distributing  the  gas,  but 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  make  the  bread  dry  by  kneading 
in  too  much  flour.  Bread  may  be  set  at  night,  allowed  to 
rise  all  night,  and  baked  in  the  morning,  or  it  may  be  made 
by  the  quick  process  now  coming  into  quite  general  use;  that 
is,  it  may  be  set  in  the  morning,  a  larger  quantity  of  yeast 
used,  and  the  whole  process  carried  through  in  from  four  to 
six  hours.  In  the  slow  process  one-fourth  of  a  yeast  cake  is 
allowed  to  a  pint  of  liquid ;  in  the  quick  process  one  whole 
cake  or  even  two  may  be  used.  The  texture  of  the  bread 
made  by  the  two  methods  will  differ  somewhat ;  that  made 
by  the  slow  process  will  contain  more  dextrin  and  sugar, 
and  will  perhaps  be  slightly  more  digestible.  The  quick 
method,  however,  has  the  great  advantage  that  the  whole 
process  can  be  watched,  and  the  temperature  more  carefully 
regulated,  so  that  the  bread  is  less  often  sour.  By  using  a 
large  amount  of  yeast,  and  whole  wheat  flour,  one  may  carry 
through  the  whole  process  of  breadmaking  in  a  school 
lesson  of  two  hours,  if  it  is  necessary. 

The  general  rule  for  both  the  first  and  second  rising  of 
the  bread  is  that  the  dough  shall  be  allowed  to  double  its 
bulk.  When  risen  just  enough,  it  should  be  soft  and  velvety, 
but  not  sticky,  to  the  touch,  and  very  elastic.  It  should 
always  be  covered  during  the  rising,  to  keep  out  the  air  and 
prevent  the  formation  of  a  hard  crust.  A  simple  method  of 
testing  the  temperature  of  the  oven  is  as  follows :  place  a 
teaspoonful  of  flour  on  a  plate  in  the  oven ;  if  it  browns  in 
five  minutes  the  oven  is  hot  enough  for  a  loaf  of  bread ;  if 
in  one  minute  it  is  right  for  rolls.  No  test,  however,  can  be 
a  substitute  for  experience.  After  a  short  time  the  heat 


246  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

may  be  lessened  that  the  crust  may  not  burn  before  the  loaf 
is  thoroughly  cooked.  The  time  for  baking  must  be  suf- 
ficient to  allow  the  heat  to  penetrate  to  the  interior  of  the 
loaf ;  and  to  insure  thorough  cooking  the  loaves  should  be 
small.  Slack-baked  loaves  not  only  are  indigestible  because 
of  the  uncooked  condition  of  the  starch,  but  often  contain 
living  bacteria  or  moulds.  The  interior  of  the  loaf  never 
becomes  hotter  than  212°  F.,  because  of  the  moisture  present, 
and  the  temperature  of  the  middle  of  a  slack-baked  loaf  may 
remain  far  below  that. 

As  soon  as  the  loaves  are  taken  from  the  oven  they  should 
be  removed  from  the  pans,  and  left  until  perfectly  cool  in 
such  a  position  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely  around 
them. 

EXPERIMENTS.  —  I.  The  composition  of  flour.  Mix  half 
a  cup  of  flour  with  water  to  form  a  stiff  dough.  Put  it  into 
a  piece  of  cheese  cloth  and  knead  it  thoroughly  under  water 
till  nothing  more  can  be  washed  out.  Test  with  iodine  the 
white  powder  of  the  washings.  The  blue  color  will  prove  it 
to  be  starch.  Examine  the  tough,  elastic  substance  which 
remains  in  the  cloth.  This  is  gluten,  the  chief  proteid  in  the 
flour.  Both  the  starch  and  gluten  may  be  dried  and  kept 
for  further  examination. 

II.  To  show  the  difference  between  wheat  flour  and  that 
from  other  grains,  as  a  material  for  breadmaking,  mix  flour 
and  water ;  corn  meal  and  water ;  rye  flour  and  water ;  and 
compare  the  doughs  formed. 

III.  The  effect  of  temperature  on  the  growth  of  yeast. 
To  a  cup  of  boiling  water  add  2  tablespoons  of  molasses, 
and  ^  of  a  yeast  cake,  crumbled  into  bits,  and  turn  the  mix- 
ture into  a  tumbler.     Add  an  equal  amount  of  molasses  and 
yeast  to  a  tumbler  of  ice  water,  and  also  to  a  tumbler  of 
water  at  a  temperature  of  about  80°  F.    Set  the  glasses  aside 
in  a  warm  place  (about  80°)  for  an  hour  or  two.    Notice  the 


BREAD  247 

time  when  bubbles,  indicating  the  formation  of  gas,  begin  to 
appear  in  each  liquid.     Compare  the  amount  of  gas  formed 

€der  the  different  conditions  of  temperature. 
IV.  (For  older  pupils.)  Fill  a  test-tube  with  a  molasses 
d  water  mixture  at  a  temperature  of  about  80°,  and  add  a 
little  yeast.  Invert  the  test-tube  in  a  shallow  dish  contain- 
ing also  some  molasses  and  water.  Support  the  test-tube  in 
some  way  and  let  the  whole  stand  for  twenty-four  hours. 
The  test-tube  will  then  be  found  to  be  nearly  emptied  of 
liquid,  and  filled  with  a  colorless  gas  which  has  forced  the 
liquid  out.  The  gas  may  be  proved  to  be  carbon  dioxide  by 
its  power  to  extinguish  a  lighted  match,  and  to  turn  lime 
water  milky,  the  usual  tests  for  this  gas. 


Recipes 
(All  measurements  are  level) 

BREAD 


1  pint  liquid  (milk,  or  milk  and  water),  2  tablespoons  of 
butter,  1  tablespoon  of  sugar,  11  teaspoon  of  salt,  1  yeast 
cake,  moistened  with  J  cup  of  water.  Flour  to  make  a 
dough  stiff  enough  to  knead  (about  6  cups). 

Individual  Mule.  —  J  cup  of  milk,  1  teaspoon  of  butter, 
J  teaspoon  of  sugar,  ^  teaspoon  of  salt,  -J-  yeast  cake,  mixed 
with  2  tablespoons  of  water,  about  1  cup  of  flour. 

Directions.  —  Scald  the  milk,  add  the  butter,  sugar,  and 
salt,  and  cool  to  80°  F.,  or  until  it  feels  cool  to  the  finger. 
Break  the  yeast  into  bits,  and  mix  it  thoroughly  with  the 
water,  at  a  temperature  of  80° ;  add  it  to  the  milk,  and  stir 
in  the  flour  gradually,  using  a  knife  or  a  wooden  spoon. 
When  the  dough  is  just  stiff  enough  to  make  into  a  smooth 
ball,  knead  it  on  a  slightly  floured  board  till  smooth  and 
elastic.  Return  it  to  the  mixing  bowl,  cover  closely  with  a 


248  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

cloth  and  tin  cover,  and  let  it  rise  till  double  its  bulk,  keep- 
ing it  at  a  temperature  of  about  75°.  Shape  into  small 
loaves ;  place  in  the  pans ;  cover  and  let  rise  till  it  again 
doubles  its  bulk.  Bake  in  a  hot  oven  (400°  to  450°)  for 
about  fifty  minutes. 

NOTES. — 1.  Unless  the  water  is  known  to  be  pure,  it  should  be 
boiled  and  cooled. 

2.  A  good  breadmaker  leaves  bowl,  spoon,  and  board  clean.    From 
the  time  the  wheat  is  harvested  until  it  is  made  into  flour  nothing  is 
wasted.     From  the  time  the  flour  is  delivered  at  the  house  until  the 
bread  is  used,  much  is  wasted  in  the  ordinary  household.    This  should 
not  be. 

3.  Part  of  the  dough,  instead  of  being  shaped  into  loaves,  may  be 
made  into  rolls.     Roll  the  dough  to  thickness  of  half  an  inch,  cut  it 
into  rounds  ;  with  the  fingers  draw  out  each  piece  to  an  oval  shape  ; 
press  nearly  through  the  centre  with  the  handle  of  a  clean  wooden 
spoon,  dipped  in  flour  ;  rub  a  little  melted  butter  on  one  half  and  fold 
the  other  half  over  it  so  that  the  edges  meet.    Let  rise  till  very  light, 
and  bake  in  a  very  hot  oven.    If  dough  is  set  especially  for  rolls,  the 
amount  of  shortening  given  in  the  rule  may  be  doubled. 

Whole  Wheat  Bread.  —  Bread  made  from  entire  wheat 
flour  is  more  nutritious  than  white  bread.  It  is  particularly 
rich  in  mineral  salts,  but  is  somewhat  less  digestible  than 
white  bread,  and,  as  part  of  a  mixed  diet,  has  no  especial 
advantage  over  it.  When  bread  is  used  as  the  chief  article 
of  diet,  however,  it  is  essential  that  it  should  have  as  high 
a  food  value  as  possible.  Graham  bread,  though  useful  for 
some  people,  is  undesirable  for  many,  because  of  the  coarse 
particles  of  bran  which  it  contains. 

Rule. — 2  cups  of  milk,  \  cup  of  sugar,  1£  teaspoon  of 
salt,  1  yeast  cake  mixed  with  2  tablespoons  of  water,  about 
4  cups  of  entire  wheat  flour. 

Directions.  —  Scald  the  milk,  add  salt  and  sugar,  and  cool ; 
add  the  yeast  and  flour,  and  beat  thoroughly.  Let  rise  in 
the  bowl,  and  when  double  in  bulk  pour  into  pans ;  let  rise 
again,  and  bake. 


BREAD  249 


Individual  Rule.  —  ^  cup  of  milk,  1^  teaspoon  of  sugar, 
\  teaspoon  of  salt,  \  yeast  cake  in  1  teaspoon  of  water, 
J  cup  of  entire  wheat  flour. 

If  it  is  desired  to  carry  through  the  process  in  two  hours, 
use  \  a  yeast  cake. 

The  Presentation  of  the  Lesson.  —  The  facts  given  in  this 
chapter  are  for  the  teacher,  not  necessarily  for  the  pupil. 
The  judgment  of  the  teacher  alone  can  determine  what 
should  be  presented  to  her  particular  class.  As  a  rule,  the 
simpler  facts,  easily  understood,  are  more  profitable  for  the 
pupil  than  the  more  elaborate  and  scientific  side  of  the  sub- 
ject. For  example:  a  knowledge  of  the  wheat  plant,  its 
habitat  and  structure,  the  ability  to  recognize  it  wherever 
seen,  familiarity  with  it  in  literature  and  art,  mean  more  to 
the  child  than  any  explanation  of  the  chemical  reactions 
which  take  place  by  the  action  of  yeast.  A  child  who  has 
never  heard  of  carbon  dioxide  nor  of  alcohol  in  connection 
with  bread  may  have  gained  more  from  the  bread  lesson 
than  one  who  can  glibly  talk  of  these  things,  but  whose 
conception  of  the  whole  process  is  hazy,  whose  manipula- 
tion is  poor,  and  whose  power  of  applying  theory  to  practice 
is  undeveloped. 

The  number  of  lessons  given  to  the  subject  will  also 
depend  upon  the  class,  and  the  amount  of  time  available. 
A  satisfactory  division  of  the  work  is  as  follows :  — 

LESSON     I.    STUDY  OF  MATERIALS. 

Experiments  with  flour,  and  with  yeast. 
Demonstration  by  the  teacher. 
LESSON  II.    REVIEW  OF  THEORY. 

Shaping  into  loaves  and  rolls,  and  perhaps 
bread-sticks,  of  dough  already  mixed  by 
teacher  and  once  raised;  raising  and  bak- 
ing it. 


250  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Setting  a  fresh  portion  of  bread.  (This  may 
be  carried  home  to  bake,  if  the  children  so 
desire.) 


LESSON  III.    WHOLE  WHEAT  BREAD.     The  whole  process 
carried  through  in  one  lesson. 

LESSON  IV.    USES  OF  STALE  BREAD. 

Bread  pudding  (plain  or  chocolate),  cheese 
pudding,  or  cheese  straws,  and  similar 
dishes  made. 

If  this  division  of  lessons  occupies  too  much  time,  the 
demonstration  by  the  teacher  may  be  omitted,  and  the  set- 
ting of  bread  by  the  pupil  may  be  included  in  the  first 
lesson.  In  the  second  lesson  the  dough  prepared  by  the 
teacher  may  be  used,  and  some  pupils  may  be  selected  tc 
carry  through  the  whole  wheat  bread  process;  the  last 
lesson  may  be  omitted. 

The  outline  here  given  is  intended  to  be  mere^  suggestive 

Outline. 

I.   INTRODUCTION. 

a.   History  of  bread;  allusions  in  literature. 
6.   Kinds  of  bread  in  use. 

c.  Value  as  a  food. 

1.  Food  principles  present. 

2.  Digestibility. 

d.  Comparative  value  of  different  kinds. 
II.    STUDY  OF  WHEAT. 

a.  Facts  concerning  it;  where  grown,  etc. 

b.  Structure  of  the  grain   (under   microscope  if  po 

sible). 

c.  Manufacture  of  flour. 


BREAD  251 

d.  Composition    of    the    flour ;    experiment    showing 

starch  and  gluten. 

e.  Superiority  over  flour  from  other  grains  for  bread- 

making;  experiment. 

III.  YEAST. 

a.  Description. 

Form,  size,  method  of  growth. 

b.  How  obtained ;  different  kinds  in  use. 

c.  Conditions  of  growth. 

1.  Moderate  temperature. 

2.  Moisture. 

f  Nitrogenous  matter. 

3.  Food  j  Mineral  matter. 

I  Sugar. 
Temperature  illustrated  by  experiment. 

d.  Chemical  changes  caused  by  its  growth. 

IV.  PROCESS  OF  BREADMAKING. 
a.   Rule  given. 

6.   Reason  for  use   of  each  material;    essential  and 
non-essential  materials  distinguished. 

c.  Manipulations. 

Mixing,  kneading,  raising;    importance  of  tem- 
perature. 

d.  Baking. 

1.  Reasons  for. 

2.  Principle  of  cookery. 
V.   CARE  OF  BREAD. 

a.   Care  on  taking  from  the  oven. 
6.   The  keeping  of  bread, 
c.   Uses  for  stale  bread. 

BAKING  POWDER  MIXTURES 

It  is  often  desirable  to  use  a  quick  method  of  raising 
dough.     Many  expedients  have  been  tried,  but  one  of  the 


252  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

most  satisfactory  is  the  production  of  carbon  dioxide  by  the 
use  of  so  called  "  baking  powder."  Baking  powder  is  usually 
composed  of  "bicarbonate"  of  sodium  (commonly  called 
baking  soda),  cream  of  tartar,  and  starch. 

Baking  soda,  like  all  carbonates,  readily  gives  up  carbon 
dioxide  upon  treatment  with  an  acid,  and  cream  of  tartar 
is  the  most  convenient  acid  to  use  in  practice,  since  it  acts 
on  the  soda  only  in  the  presence  of  warmth  and  moisture, 
and  the  residue  left  after  action  ceases  (Eochelle  salt)  is 
comparatively  harmless.  The  starch  is  added  because  by 
its  power  of  absorbing  moisture  it  keeps  the  other  ingredi- 
ents dry.  The  chemical  reaction  which  takes  place  when 
baking  powder  is  used  is  as  follows :  — 

Bicarbonate      Potassium  Acid 
of  Sodium  Tartrate  Rochelle  Salt 

NaHCOg  +  KH(C4H406)=  KNa(C4H406)+  C02+H20. 

Baking  soda  has  a  molecular  weight  of  84,  and  cream  of 
tartar  of  188.  This  means  that  the  proper  proportion  in 
which  to  use  them,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  excess  of  either, 
is  84  parts,  by  weight,  of  soda,  to  188  parts,  by  weight,  of 
cream  of  tartar.  An  excess  of  the  acid  gives  a  sour  taste ; 
an  excess  of  the  soda,  which  is  an  alkaline  substance,  not 
only  gives  a  disagreeable  flavor,  but  hinders  digestion. 

For  this  reason  it  is  better  to  use  baking  powder,  for 
which  the  ingredients  have  been  carefully  weighed  out, 
than  to  buy  soda  and  cream  of  tartar  and  mix  them  one's  self. 
Soda  is  often  used  in  cookery  and  the  necessary  acid  fur- 
nished by  sour  milk  or  molasses.  In  this  case  one  teaspoon- 
f  ul  of  soda  is  usually  allowed  to  one  cup  of  molasses  or  one 
pint  of  sour  milk. 

Baking  soda  is  manufactured  from  common  salt.  Cream 
of  tartar  is  obtained  from  the  inside  of  wine  casks,  where  it 
is  deposited  by  the  fermenting  grape  juice.  It  is  then  a 


BREAD  253 


purplish  crystalline  substance  known  as  argol,  and  must  be 
purified  by  dissolving,  filtering  through  charcoal,  and  re- 
crystallizing,  before  it  is  put  upon  the  market  as  cream 
of  tartar. 

Baking  powder  biscuit,  and  similar  mixtures,  should  be 
made  into  as  soft  a  dough  as  it  is  possible  to  handle,  should 
be  handled  as  little  and  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  baked 
immediately  in  a  hot  oven. 

The  proportion  of  baking  powder  to  be  allowed  for  each 
cup  of  flour  is  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  teaspoonfuls. 
When  eggs  are  used,  as  in  cake,  less  baking  powder  is 
needed. 

EULES 

Baking  Powder  Biscuit.  —  2  cups  flour,  2  tablespoons  but- 
ter, 3  teaspoons  baking  powder,  f  cup  milk,  1  teaspoon  salt. 

Individual. — J  cup  flour,  1  teaspoon  butter,  1  teaspoon 
baking  powder,  2  tablespoons  milk,  -J-  teaspoon  salt. 

Beef  drippings,  or  other  fat,  may  be  substituted  for  the 
butter. 

Directions. —  Mix  the  dry  ingredients  and  sift  twice.  Work 
in  the  butter  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers,  and  add  the  milk 
very  gradually,  mixing  with  a  knife  till  a  soft  dough  is 
formed.  It  may  be  found  necessary  to  vary  the  amount  of 
milk.  Turn  the  dough  on  a  floured  board  and  roll  lightly 
till  it  is  about  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  cut  into  rounds, 
place  in  a  greased  pan,  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven  about  fifteen 
minutes. 

SHORT  CAKE 

Use  the  rule  for  biscuit,  adding,  to  the  whole  amount, 
2  more  tablespoons  of  butter,  and  1  tablespoon  of  sugar. 
Mix,  roll  out  to  half  an  inch  thickness,  shape  into  two  large 
rounds,  place  one  upon  the  other,  and  bake.  When  done, 
split  open,  spread  with  a  little  butter,  and  fill  with  sweet- 
ened fruit :  strawberries,  oranges,  or  peaches. 


254  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

DUTCH  APPLE  CAKE 

Use  the  short  xjake  rule  with  the  addition  of  one  egg, 
beaten,  and  added  with  the  milk.  Make  the  dough  a  little 
softer  than  for  biscuit,  spread  in  the  pan,  without  rolling, 
and  stick  into  it,  in  even  rows,  thin  slices  of  apple. 
Sprinkle  with  sugar,  and  bake.  This  may  be  served  with 
a  sauce  if  desired. 

If  more  variety  is  wished,  part  of  the  biscuit  dough  may 
be  rolled  thin,  spread  with  a  little  butter,  sprinkled  with 
cinnamon  and  sugar,  and  rolled  like  jelly  roll.  Slices  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness  may  be  cut,  laid  in  a  pan, 
with  the  cut  portion  down,  and  baked.  Chopped  apple  may 
be  used  instead  of  the  spice. 

Another  lesson  may  be  given  to  breakfast  muffins.  Several 
different  kinds  should  be  chosen,  such  as  graham,  rye,  corn 
meal,  white  muffins,  assigned  to  different  workers,  and  the 
children  led  to  see  that  the  principle  is  the  same  in  each 
case.  Muffins  should  be  mixed  to  the  consistency  of  a 
batter,  not  a  dough.  Usually  a  "drop"  batter  ^s  used  for 
them,  —  that  is,  a  batter  that  will  break  as  it  falls,  not  pour 
in  a  continuous  stream. 

The  following  outline  for  the  study  of  baking  powder  will 
suggest  some  simple  experiments  which  may  be  given. 

Baking  Powder. 

I.    INTRODUCTION. 

Methods  of  making  doughs  and  batters  light. 
a.   By  means  of  carbon  dioxide,  obtained : 

1.  From  the  growth  of  yeast. 

2.  From  the  action  of  an  acid  upon  a  carbonate. 
6.   By  means  of  air. 

II.   ACIDS. 

Definition.     Test  (means  of  recognizing). 


BREAD  255 


Familiar   acids   (vinegar,  lemon  juice),  tested  by 

litmus  paper,  and  tasted. 
Cream  of  tartar  proved  an  acid,  by  power  to  redden 

litmus  and  by  taste. 

III.  CARBONATES. 

Meaning.  A  compound  from  which  a  gas  (carbon 
dioxide)  can  be  set  free.  Illustration,  a  piece 
of  marble  and  an  acid. 

Baking  soda  tested  with  litmus,  and  tasted  and 
shown  to  have  properties  opposite  from  acid 
(alkaline) ;  proved  a  carbonate  by  the  addition 
of  an  acid. 

IV.  EFFECT  OF  MOISTURE  AND  HEAT  ON  SODA  AND  CREAM 

OF  TARTAR. 

Add  cold  and  hot  water  each : 
a.   To  soda. 
6.   To  cream  of  tartar. 

c.    To  a  mixture  of  the  two,  and  compare  results. 
V.   COMPOSITION  OF  BAKING  POWDER. 

Add  hot  and  cold  water  to  baking  powder,  and  com- 
pare results  with  IV. 

Mix  a  little  baking  powder  with  water  and  boil. 
Notice  the  consistency  of  the  liquid,  and  test 
it  with  iodine. 
VI.   MANUFACTURE  OF  BAKING  POWDER. 

Source  and  preparation  of  chief  ingredients. 
Reason  for  adding  starch. 
Reasons  favoring  its  use. 
VII.    SUBSTITUTES  FOR  BAKING  POWDER. 
Soda  and  sour  milk. 
Soda  and  cream  of  tartar. 


256  HANDBOOK   OF  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

CAKE 

Cake  is  a  mixture  of  flour,  liquid,  eggs,  and  sugar,  with 
or  without  butter,  made  light  by  the  use  of  yeast,  as  in  the 
old  fashioned  "election  cake  " ;  by  air  beaten  into  the  batter, 
as  in  many  sponge  cakes ;  or,  most  often,  by  the  use  of  bak- 
ing powder.  The  egg,  like  the  gluten  of  the  flour,  retains 
the  gas  till  the  cake  is  set  by  the  heat.  Gingerbread,  and 
plain  dark  fruit  cake,  are  often  made  with  soda  and  sour 
milk,  part  of  the  acid  being  supplied  by  the  molasses  used. 
In  these  the  egg  is  sometimes  omitted.  Cake  made  with 
butter  is  cup  or  pound  cake,  as  the  materials  are  measured 
or  weighed.  Sponge  cake  is  always  made  without  butter. 

The  following  are  the  general  rules  for  cakemaking :  — 

1.  The  oven  should  be  ready  before  the  work  is  begun. 
An  oven  which  will  turn  a  piece  of  white  paper  dark  yellow 
in  five  minutes  is  considered  right  for  cup  cakes.     Sponge, 
and  fruit,  or  pound  cakes,  require  less  heat,  and  the  test 
paper  should  turn  light  yellow  in  five  minutes  when  the 
oven  is  right  for  them.     If  there  is  too  much  heat  the  gas 
will  escape  from  the  cake  before  the  egg  has  time  to  set, 
and  the  cake  will  fall ;  if  the  oven  is  too  slow  the  cake  will 
not  rise  sufficiently,  and  will  be  of  coarse  texture.     Layer 
and  small  cakes  need  more  heat  than  loaf  cake. 

2.  All  materials  should  be  ready,  and  the  pans  greased, 
and  lined  with  paper,  if  loaf  cake  is  made,  before  the  work 
of  combination  begins. 

3.  For  butter  cake  the  general  rule   for  combining  in- 
gredients is  as  follows:    Cream  the  butter,  add  the  sugar 
gradually,  then  the  beaten  eggs,  and  beat  vigorously;  add 
the  flour,  sifted  with  the  baking  powder  and  salt,  alternately 
with  the  milk ;  flavor,  add  nuts  and  fruit  dredged  with  flour, 
if  any  are  to  be  used,  and  bake  immediately.     A  more  deli- 
cate cake  is  made  by  separating  the  yolks  and  whites  of  the 


CAKE  257 


eggs,  adding  the  beaten  yolks  to  the  butter  and  sugar,  and 
cutting  or  folding  in  the  stiffly  beaten  whites  just  before 
putting  the  cake  into  the  oven. 

For  sponge  cake  beat  the  egg  yolks  till  thick  and  yellow, 
add  the  sugar  gradually,  then  the  stiffly  beaten  whites,  and 
last  of  all  fold  in  the  flour  sifted  with  the  salt. 

4.  The  mixing  is  most  easily  done  with  a  wooden  spoon. 
A  Dover  egg-beater,  or  a  wire  whisk,  is  the  most  satisfactory 
utensil  for  beating  the  eggs.    After  adding  the  eggs,  beat  the 
mixture  rather  than  stir  it,  in  order  not  to  break  the  air 
bubbles  formed. 

5.  Pastry  flour  gives  a  more  delicate  cake  than  bread 
flour.     If  the  latter  is  used,  a  little  less  is  required  than  of 
pastry  flour.    The  flour  must  always  be  sifted  before  measur- 
ing, as  in  all  cookery,  and  sifted  again  when  the  baking 
powder  has   been  added.      Fine   granulated  or   powdered 
sugar  gives  a  cake  of  finer  texture  than  a  coarse  sugar. 

6.  A  layer  cake  will  bake  in  twenty  minutes,  while  a  loaf 
requires  longer,  the  time  varying  with  the  size  of  the  loaf. 
The  cake  is  done  when  it  shrinks  from  the  edge  of  the  pan, 
and  when  it  springs  back  into  place  after  pressure  with  the 
finger. 

7.  When  taken  from  the  oven  the  cake  should  be  removed 
from  the  pan,  and  left  to  cool  upon  a  wire  cake-cooler.     It 
should  be  kept  in  a  tin  box  or  closely  covered  jar. 

Rule. 

Cup  Cake.  —  2  cups  sugar,  -f  cup  butter,  3  eggs,  1  cup  milk, 
3  cups  flour,  3  teaspoons  baking  powder,  1  teaspoon  flavoring 
(lemon  or  orange),  J  teaspoon  salt. 

Individual  Rule.  —  \  cup  sugar,  li  tablespoon  butter,  \  egg, 
2  tablespoons  milk,  i  cup  pastry  flour,  \  teaspoon  baking 
powder,  8  drops  of  flavoring,  sprinkling  of  salt. 

The  cake  is  to  be  put  together  by  the  method  given  above 
for  mixing  butter  cakes. 


258  HANDBOOK   OF  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

With  this  simple  foundation  a  variety  of  cake  may  be 
made.  Not  only  may  different  flavors  be  used,  and  some  of 
the  cake  frosted,  but  to  one  may  be  added :  — 

|  teaspoon  of  molasses,  2  tablespoons  of  raisins,  stoned 
and  cut  fine,  a  few  slices  of  citron,  2  salt  spoons  of  cinna- 
mon, 1  salt  spoon  each  of  clove  and  allspice,  and  1  teaspoon 
of  flour.  (These  proportions  are  for  the  individual  rule). 

This  may  be  baked  in  thin  sheets  and  put  together  in 
alternate  layers  with  some  of  the  plain  cake  baked  in  the 
same  form,  and  the  layers  held  together  by  a  little  jelly,  or 
some  white  of  egg,  slightly  beaten.  Another  variation  may 
be  made  by  baking  some  of  the  white  cake  in  layers  and 
making  a  chocolate  or  other  filling  for  it.  To  one  portion 
English  walnuts  may  be  added,  to  another  dried  currants, 
and  to  a  third  some  sliced  citron. 

It  is  better  to  teach  the  cake  lesson  by  giving  one  rule 
(any  simple  foundation  may  be  substituted  for  the  one 
given)  and  varying  it,  than  by  giving  separate  recipes ;  as 
this  method  makes  the  child  see  the  unity  underlying  all  the 
variations,  and  gives  her  the  power  to  change  her  own  rule 
if  she  chooses. 

A  second  lesson  may  be  given  to  gingerbread  and  cookies. 

PASTRY 

Pastry  is  not  a  form  of  food  to  be  recommended,  and 
should  never  be  eaten  by  young  children  or  by  people  of 
delicate  digestion.  The  large  amount  of  fat  mixed  with  the 
flour  and  coating  the  starch  grains,  makes  it  difficult  for  the 
digestive  juices  to  penetrate  to  the  starch;  and  as  fat  is 
digested  neither  in  the  mouth  nor  the  stomach,  the  starch  is 
not  acted  upon  until  late  in  the  process  of  digestion.  If 
pastry  is  to  be  eaten,  however,  it  should  be  light,  flaky,  and 
thoroughly  cooked;  and  one  lesson  may  well  be  devoted  to 
its  preparation.  Puff  paste  is  difficult  to  make  and  expen- 


PASTKY  259 


sive,  and  its  preparation  has  no  place  in  a  public  school 
course,  but  a  plain  paste  may  be  given. 

The  principles  of  cookery  involved  in  pastry  making  are 
those  of  starch  cookery,  and  of  the  expansion  of  air  to 
lighten  the  food  materials. 

The  materials  used  are :  — 

1.  Pastry  flour.     Since  this  contains  more  starch  and  less 
gluten  than  bread  flour  it  makes  a  more  tender  paste. 

2.  Fat:    either  butter,  beef  dripping,  lard,  or  sometimes 
cottolene.     Lard  makes  a  whiter  pastry  than  butter,  but 
pastry  made  with  butter  and  beef  dripping  is  considered 
more  digestible. 

3.  Cold  water.     In  summer  ice-water  is  desirable.     It  is 
essential  to  good  pastry  that  the  fat  should  not  melt  until 
after  the  baking  begins. 

4.  Salt,  for  flavor,  and  sometimes  baking  powder  to  aid  in 
making  the   pastry  light.     The   manipulations   consist   of 
rubbing  in  the  butter  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers ;  stirring 
in  the  liquid  with  a  knife ;  patting  and  lightly  rolling  the 
dough,  and  cutting  it  into  shape  for  baking.     The  success 
of  the  work  depends  upon  having  everything  cool,  and  upon 
the  handling  of  the  dough  as  quickly  and  lightly  as  pos- 
sible.    For  the  best  pastry  the  butter  must  be  washed  and 
worked  under  water  until  waxy,  to  remove  the  salt  and  but- 
termilk.    The  utensils  needed,  in  addition  to  those  used  for 
measuring  and  sifting,  are  a  bowl,  knife,  kneading  board  and 
rolling  pin,  and  plates  or  tins  for  baking.     Pastry  requires 
a  hot  oven,  but  the  heat  should  be  lessened  after  a  short 
time.     The  pastry  should  first  rise  in  the  oven  and  then 
brown.     The  time  of  baking  is  from  forty  to  fifty  minutes. 

Rule. 

Plain  Pastry.  —  1  cup  pastry  flour,  £  cup  butter  or  2  table- 
spoons butter  and  2  tablespoons  dripping,  i  teaspoon  salt, 
ice-water  to  moisten. 


260  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Individual  Rule.  —  J  cup  flour,  1  tablespoon  butter,  1  salt 
spoon  salt,  ice-water. 

NOTE.  —  If  a  very  plain  paste  is  desired,  less  fat  may  be  used,  and 
£  teaspoon  baking  powder  to  1  cup  of  flour  may  be  added. 

Directions.  —  Sift  together  the  flour,  salt,  and  baking 
powder  (if  used).  Wash  the  butter,  and  with  the  tips 
of  the  fingers  work  half  of  it  into  the  flour.  Add  ice- 
water  slowly,  stirring  with  a  knife,  until  a  stiff  dough  is 
formed,  then  turn  on  a  floured  board  and  pat  with  the 
rolling  pin,  and  roll  lightly  into  an  oblong  piece.  Spread 
the  remaining  butter  upon  the  paste,  and  fold  it,  making 
three  layers;  pat  and  roll  out  and  again  fold  into  three 
layers,  to  entangle  as  much  air  as  possible;  roll  out  to 
about  \  inch  in  thickness,  and  fit  to  the  pie  plate. 

Apple  Pie.  —  Select  sour  apples,  pare,  core,  and  cut  into 
slices,  and  with  them  nearly  fill  the  pie  plate  which  has 
been  lined  with  paste.  Sprinkle  with  sugar,  allowing  1 
tablespoon  to  each  apple,  and  with  cinnamon.  Lemon  juice 
or  nutmeg  may  be  substituted  for  the  cinnamon,  and  if  a 
richer  pie  is  desired,  bits  of  butter  may  be  dotted  over 
the  surface.  Cover  with  a  crust,  and  press  together  the 
edges  of  the  two  crusts  which  have  been  moistened  with 
a  little  water.  Perforate  the  upper  crust  with  a  large 
fork,  or  in  some  way,  that  the  steam  may  escape.  Bake 
for  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

Custard  Pie.  —  Line  the  plate  with  a  crust  and  prick  it 
with  a  fork.  With  narrow  strips  of  paste,  moistened  with 
water,  make  a  rim  to  the  pie  to  add  to  its  depth ;  bake  until 
crisp  but  not  brown.  Mix  milk,  egg,  and  sugar  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  egg  to  1  cup  of  milk  and  2  tablespoons  of  sugar ; 
season  with  a  little  salt  and  a  few  gratings  of  nutmeg,  and 
pour  into  the  crust.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  until  the 
custard  is  set. 


MARCH 

THE  BEDROOM 

ADVANCED  COURSE:   INVALID  COOKING 

BY  CAROLINE  L.  HUNT,  A.B., 

FORMERLY  TEACHER  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOLS  OF  MINNEAPOLIS  AND  BROOKLYN, 

AND  ASSISTANT  IN  FOOD  INVESTIGATION,  U.S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE;  NOW 

INSTRUCTOR  IN  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY  IN  LEWIS  INSTITUTE,  CHICAGO. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    BEDROOM 

REFERENCES 

The  Bedroom :  Magazine  of  Art,  vol.  9,  p.  81.  Manners  and  Cus- 
toms of  Other  Nations  and  Times :  Antiquarian,  new  series,  vol.  2, 
p.  185 ;  Cosmopolitan,  vol.  2,  p.  75 ;  Leisure  Hour,  vol.  2,  p.  227  ;  All 
the  Year  Round,  vol.  17,  p.  41,  vol.  33,  p.  274 ;  Chambers's  Journal, 
Year  1861,  p.  260;  Every  Saturday,  vol.  13,  p.  249;  Private  Life  of 
the  Romans,  Preston  and  Dodge.  Physiology :  American  Textbook 
of  Physiology,  Howell ;  The  Human  Body,  Martin.  Chemistry  :  In- 
organic Chemistry,  Remsen's  Advanced  Course.  Furnishing  and 
Cleaning:  Home  Economics,  Maria  Parloa.  Cooking  for  the  Sick: 
Practical  Dietetics,  Thompson;  Boston  Cooking-School  Cook  Book, 
Farmer ;  Handbook  of  Invalid  Cooking,  Boland. 

INTRODUCTION 

The  Word  Bedroom.  —  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  bedroom 
is  not  what  its  name  implies  —  a  place  for  a  bed  only.  It 
too  often  contains  not  only  conveniences  for  sleeping,  but 
also  for  making  the  toilet.  Not  infrequently,  especially  in 
boarding-houses,  one  room  must  serve  the  purposes  of  bed- 
room, toilet  room  and  living  room.  This  condition  of  affairs 
is  much  to  be  deprecated,  and  we  should  always  hold  before 
ourselves  the  ideal  of  a  bright  and  airy  room,  used  only  for 
a  sleeping  room.  Into  such  a  room  none  of  the  clothing 
worn  during  the  day  would  be  taken,  and  no  toilets  made. 
Bedrooms  of  this  sort  would  make  us  a  healthier  people. 
They  are  not  practicable  for  most  of  us,  however,  and  the 

263 


264  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

statements  made  in  this  chapter  must  be  understood  as 
referring  to  a  room  used  for  both  sleeping  and  toilet  pur- 
poses. 

LESSON  I 
Hygiene  of  the  Bedroom 

Necessity  for  Healthful  Bedrooms.  —  In  the  bedroom  one- 
third  of  life  is  spent.  The  other  two-thirds  is  so  divided 
that  in  most  cases  we  may  s.ay  there  is  no  other  one 
place  in  which  so  much  of  our  time  is  passed.  It  follows 
that  there  is  no  other  place  which  can  be  in  so  large  a 
measure  responsible  for  our  health  or  for  our  sickness. 
The  time  spent  in  the  bedroom,  moreover,  should  be  a  time 
of  refreshment  and  recuperation.  If  conditions  are  not 
favorable  for  these  things,  we  are  likely  to  be  incapacitated 
for  our  daily  work. 

Substances  which  tend  to  make  the  Bedroom  Unhealthful. 
—  Much  of  the  waste  material  of  the  body  is  cast  off  in  the 
bedroom.  This  is  in  the  form  of  excretions  from  the  lungs, 
the  skin,  and  the  kidneys.  These  waste  materials  bear  much 
the  same  relation  to  the  body  that  the  ash  bears  to  the  fur- 
nace. Most  of  them  are  not  harmful  in  themselves,  but 
they  are  useless,  and  they  crowd  out  other  substances  which 
are  .distinctly  useful.  Another  source  of  danger  is  the 
street  dust  which  settles  upon  our  clothing  during  the  day. 
This  is  more  likely  to  be  left  in  the  bedroom  than  in  other 
rooms  of  the  house  because  it  is  here  that  the  clothing  is 
put  on  and  taken  off,  being  thus  moved  about  and  shaken. 
This  dust  is  dangerous,  partly  because  it  irritates  the  air 
passages,  and  partly  because  it  is  almost  sure  to  contain  the 
germs  of  disease. 

Excretions  from  the  Lungs.  —  Ordinary  air  is  a  mixture  of 
two  invisible  gases,  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  About  one-fifth 


THE   BEDROOM  265 


is  oxygen  and  four-fifths  nitrogen.  Small  amounts  of  other 
substances  are  always  present.  The  nitrogen  is  very  inert 
and  neither  affects  the  body  nor  is  affected  by  it.  The 
oxygen  is  the  part  of  the  air  which  is  essential  to  life  and 
health.  Oxygen  is  frequently  called  the  supporter  of  com- 
bustion. When  a  substance  burns,  it  unites  with  oxygen 
and  a  compound  is  formed,  which,  while  it  contains  both 
the  substance  itself  and  oxygen,  is  unlike  either.  Such 
a  compound,  called  an  oxide,  will  not  burn  because  it  has 
already  all  the  oxygen  it  can  hold.  Neither  is  it  a  good 
supporter  of  combustion,  because  oxygen  will  not  ordinarily 
leave  the  substance  which  holds  it  to  unite  with  a  new 
substance. 

The  oxygen  in  the  air  which  enters  our  lungs  is  carried 
by  the  blood  to  the  various  tissues  of  the  body.  It  there 
unites  with  the  substances  which  compose  the  tissues. 
This  phenomenon  is  called  burning,  and  serves  the  double 
purpose  of  changing  worn-out  tissue  into  substances  which 
can  be  easily  removed  from  the  body,  and  of  maintaining 
animal  heat.  As  the  tissues  are  largely  composed  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen,  the  substances  formed  in  the  burning  are 
chiefly  oxides  of  carbon  and  of  hydrogen.  The  former  is  a 
gas  known  as  carbon  dioxide.  The  latter  is  water.  These 
are  brought  by  the  blood  to  the  lungs  and  there  excreted 
from  the  body.  As  they  do  not  support  combustion,  it  is 
useless  to  breathe  them  into  the  lungs.  The  process  of 
breathing,  therefore,  carried  on  in  a  closed  room,  is  con- 
stantly removing  from  the  air  a  substance  which  is  useful 
to  the  body,  and  returning  to  it  substances  which  are 
useless.  Worse  than  this,  we  are  constantly  breathing  off 
minute  particles  of  poisonous  substances,  probably  bits  of 
worn-out  lung  tissue.  These  substances  are  known  as 
"  crowd-poisoning,"  and  give  the  bad  odor  to  closed  rooms 
in  which  many  people  are  breathing. 


266  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  in  a  bedroom,  in  which  one 
remains  so  many  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four,  there  should 
be  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  air.  If  fresh  air  is  not  sup- 
plied, the  impure  air  is  breathed  over  and  over  again,  and 
both  the  carbon  dioxide,  which  is  useless,  and  the  "  crowd- 
poisoning,'7  which  is  extremely  harmful,  constantly  increase, 
while  the  useful  oxygen  diminishes.  Nor  is  it  safe  to  make 
one's  senses  the  test  of  the  purity  of  the  air  which  he  has  for 
some  time  been  breathing.  It  is  easy  to  become  accustomed 
to  bad  air.  Who  has  not  entered  a  close  room,  and  found  it 
difficult  to  breathe  the  air,  whose  impurity  the  occupants  of 
the  room  had  not  discovered  ? 

EXPERIMENTS.  I.  To  show  that  oxygen  supports  combus- 
tion. —  In  a  test-tube  heat  a  few  pieces  of  potassium  chlorate 
until  gas  is  given  off.  This  gas  is  oxygen.  Light  a  match. 
Extinguish  all  but  a  spark.  Insert  in  gas  at  top  of  the  tube. 
It  bursts  into  a  flame. 

NOTE.  —  By  consulting  the  works  on  chemistry  given  as  references, 
the  teacher  can  learn  methods  of  preparing  oxygen  on  a  larger  scale, 
and  can  show  its  properties  more  in  detail. 

II.  To  make  the  oxide  of  carbon,  known  as  carbon  dioxic 
—  Fasten  a  piece  of  charcoal,  which  is  nearly  pure  carbon, 
a  wire.     Pass  the  wire  through  a  piece  of  cardboard.     He 
the  charcoal  until  it  glows,  and  then  plunge  into  a  wi( 
mouthed  bottle  in  such  a  way  that  the  cardboard  serves  as 
cover  for  the  bottle.     (A  bottle  of  pure  oxygen  is  bett 
than  a  bottle  of  air).     When  the  fire  has  gone  out,  remove 
the  charcoal  and  pour  clear  lime  water  into  the  bottle.    Cork 
and  shake.     The  water  will  become  milky.    After  the  burn- 
ing of  the  charcoal,  the  bottle  was  full  of  the  gas  called 
carbon  dioxide.     This  gas  always  makes  lime  water  milky. 

III.  To  show  that  carbon  dioxide  is  not  a  good  supporter  of 
combustion.  —  Make  a  bottle  of  carbon  dioxide,  as  in  Ex.  II. 


THE   BEDROOM  267 


Into  this  plunge  a  lighted  stick  or  taper.    It  is  immediately 
extinguished. 

IV.  To  show  that  the  air  which  comes  from  the  lungs  con- 
tains carbon  dioxide.  —  Take  a  bottle  half  full  of  clear  lime 
water.     Into  this  bottle  fit  a  rubber  stopper  having  two 
holes.     Into  one  hole  put  a  piece  of  glass  tubing  reaching 
almost  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.     Into  the  other  hole  put 
a  piece  reaching  just  below  the  stopper.    Placing  the  lips  on 
the  short  tube,  draw  the  air  of  the  room  through  the  lime 
water,  being  very  careful  not  to  exhale  air  from  the  lungs 
into  the  bottle.     Note  that  the  lime  water  undergoes  very 
little  change,  if  any.     Now  place  the  lips  to  the  long  tube 
and  blow  air  from  the  lungs  into  the  bottle.     Note  that  the 
lime  water  soon  becomes  milky,  and  that  on  standing,  a 
white  precipitate  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle. 

V.  To  show  that  heat  is  created  within  the  body.  —  Take  the 
temperature  of  the  room  with  a  thermometer.     Then  hold 
the   thermometer  tightly  in  the  hand  for  two   or   three 
minutes.     Why  does  the  mercury  rise? 

LESSON  II 
Hygiene  of  the  Bedroom  (continued) 

Excretions  from  the  Skin.  —  The  waste  material  of  the 
body  is  thrown  off  through  the  skin,  as  well  as  through  the 
lungs.  Every  day  there  come  through  the  skin  small 
amounts  of  carbon  dioxide,  and  from  one  and  one-half  to 
two  pints  of  water.  This  water  usually  evaporates  imme- 
diately, and  is  therefore  spoken  of  as  insensible  perspira- 
tion. It  is  absorbed  by  the  clothing,  which,  therefore, 
needs  frequent  washing  or  airing,  to  prevent  it  from  getting 
musty.  With  the  water  always  come  certain  solid  sub- 
stances which  are  left  on  the  skin  when  the  water  evapor- 
ates. The  skin  also  excretes  an  oily  substance.  Some  of 


268  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

these  solid  matters  are  ill-smelling  when  first  excreted. 
Others  decompose  if  they  stay. on  the  skin  long.  Butyric 
acid,  which  gives  the  vile  odor  to  rancid  butter,  is  found 
among  the  excretions  of  the  skin.  These  substances  are 
rubbed  off  from  the  skin  by  the  friction  of  the  clothing 
during  the  day,  and  when  the  clothing  is  removed  at  night 
they  are  likely  to  be  freed,  and  to  settle  in  the  bedroom. 
They  also  get  on  the  night  clothing.  The  best  way  to  keep 
these  excreted  substances  from  accumulating  in  the  bed- 
room is  to  bathe  frequently,  and  to  air  thoroughly 
clothing  worn  at  night  as  well  as  that  worn  by  day. 

Excretion  from  the  Kidneys. — Urine,  one  of  the  wasl 
products  of  the  body,  is  often  voided  in  the  bedroom.  Thif 
contains  a  substance  known  as  urea,  which  arises  from  th< 
decomposition  of  the  nitrogenous  tissues.  The  decom- 
position begun  inside  the  body  continues  outside,  and  th( 
urea  changes  into  ammonia  and  carbon  dioxide.  These, 
passing  into  the  air,  add  to  its  impurity.  The  urine  ali 
gives  off  small  amounts  of  ill-smelling  substances.  These 
make  us  uncomfortable,  if  they  harm  us  in  no  other  way, 
and  discomfort  undermines  the  health,  just  as  anxiety  and 
sorrow  do. 

The  Dangers  from  Dust.  —  Having  considered  the  dangei 
from  within,  we  must  now  give  our  attention  to  the  dangei 
from  without.  The  former  have  been  understood  for  many 
years.  The  latter  are  only  beginning  to  be  understood. 
These  dangers  are  due  to  the  presence  everywhere  of  very 
minute  organisms  known  as  bacteria.  Bacteria  are  so  small 
that  the  inexperienced  find  difficulty  in  seeing  them  even 
with  the  microscope.  Like  human  beings,  bacteria  differ 
very  much  one  from  another.  Some  are  very  useful;  for 
example,  those  which  help  plants  to  get  food  from  the  air. 
Others  destroy  property;  for  example,  those  which  cause 
milk  to  sour.  Still  others  are  extremely  harmful.  Most  of 


I 


THE   BEDROOM  269 


the  diseases  with  which  people  are  afflicted  are  now  thought 
to  be  caused  by  bacteria  of  the  last  class.  The  dust  which 
blows  about  the  street  and  which  we  carry  into  the  house  on 
our  shoes  and  other  clothing  is  full  of  bacteria,  and  these 
are  frequently  harmful  bacteria.  The  bacillus  of  tubercu- 
losis is  very  commonly  found  in  street  dust,  on  account  of 
the  frequency  of  the  disease,  and  the  failure  of  persons 
afflicted  with  it  to  exercise  proper  care  in  the  disposal 
of  the  sputum.  Surface  dirt  is  very  likely  to  contain  the 
germ  of  lockjaw.  Besides  these  two  germs,  those  of  many 
other  dreaded  diseases  may  be  contained  in  the  dust  which 
clings  to  our  clothing.  For  this  reason  we  should  be  very 
careful  not  to  bring  overshoes  and  outside  wraps  into  the 
bedroom.  We  should  also  be  careful  not  to  sit  upon  the 
bed  or  rub  our  clothing  against  it.  It  is  well  to  remove 
the  counterpane  from  the  bed  at  night  and  substitute  a 
sheet  which  has  been  put  away  from  the  dust.  Woollen 
carpets  and  draperies  provide  good  hiding-places  for  dust 
and  germs.  Such  articles  should  never  be  used  in  a  bed- 
room. On  the  other  hand  sunshine  is  a  foe  to  germs,  and 
should  be  allowed  to  stream  into  the  bedroom  all  day  if 
possible.  Better  fade  all  the  furniture  in  the  room  than  to 
give  disease  germs  a  chance  to  live. and  flourish.  These 
three  rules  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  in  combating 
the  evils  of  dust:  (1)  Avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  bringing 
harmful  substances  into  the  room.  (2)  Provide  no  lurking- 
places  for  such  substances.  (3)  Kemove  frequently  the 
harmful  substances  which  inevitably  do  collect. 

Suggestions  for  Illustrative  Experiments.  —  I.  The  amount 
of  matter  excreted  by  the  skin  and  lungs  during  the  night 
may  be  determined  by  weighing  one's  self  the  last  thing  at 
night,  and  immediately  on  rising  in  the  morning.  If  urine 
has  been  voided  in  the  meantime,  its  weight  must  be 
subtracted  from  the  total  difference.  If  this  could  be  done 


270 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


by  even  one  or  two  pupils  in  the  class,  it  would  serve  as 
valuable  illustration. 

II.  Where  a  microscope  is  available,  the  teacher  might 
by  the  use  of  prepared  slides,  give  her  class  some  id( 
of  the  nature  of  germs. 

LESSOX  III 
Building  and  Furnishing 

Location  of  the  Bedroom.  —  The  location  of  the  bedroom  ii 
a  matter  for  serious  consideration.     It  should  be  so  situat 
that  it  receives  the  sun  during  some  time  of  the  day.     E; 
rooms  are  preferable,  for  they  get  the  sun  during  the  moi 
ing  airing  and  cleaning  time.     Next  best  are  south  rooi 
All  rooms  cannot  be  east  or  south  rooms,  but  a  house 
be  planned  so  as  to  get  sun  into  most  of  the  rooms, 
important  as  sun  is  fresh  air.     If  it  is  impossible  to  have 
opposite  windows  in  the  bedroom,  the  house  should  be 
planned  that  the  windows  of  each  bedroom  are  opposite 
windows  in  an  adjoining  room  or  hall.     It  will  then  be  pc 
sible  to  allow  the  fresh  air  to  sweep  through  the  rooms 
often  as  needed.     There  should  always  be  a  window  in  th< 
bedroom  closet.     This  should  be  in  the  wall  opposite  th( 
door  of  the  closet,  thus  securing  a  draft  when  the  door  am 
window  are  opened  for  the  daily  airing.     Quiet  is  anothei 
important  consideration  in  locating  the  bedroom.     Othei 
things  being  equal,  the  bedroom  should  be  in  the  part 
the  house  most  removed  from  the  noise  of  the  street, 
little  additional  care  in  building,  in  the  direction  of  deadei 
ing  partitions  and  floors,  would  serve  to  keep  from  the  bed- 
room many  of  the  disturbing  sounds  within  the  house. 

It  is  a  great  advantage  if,  in  planning  the  house,  a  plac< 
can  be  provided  for  airing  mattresses.  Because  of  th< 
weight  of  the  mattresses  it  should  not  be  necessary 


I 


THE   BEDROOM  271 


carry  them  far.  A  sunny  porch,  out  of  sight  of  the 
street,  and  opening  by  a  door  or  a  long  window  from  the 
upper  hall,  is  the  best  place  for  such  airing.  This  porch 
should  be  furnished  with  hooks  for  attaching  clothes  lines. 
On  the  lines,  pillows  and  the  lighter  weight  bed  furnish- 
ings can  be  aired. 

Finishings  of  the  Bedroom.  —  Having  located  the  bedroom, 
attention  must  next  be  given  to  the  finishing.  In  covering 
the  walls,  the  first  consideration  should  be  that  of  cleanli- 
ness. If  paper  is  used,  it  should  be  frequently  renewed. 
Paint  is  desirable  because  it  can  be  washed.  Calciniining 
is  cheap  and  easily  renewed.  The  woodwork  should  be 
plain,  and  so  made  as  to  shed  dust  instead  of  collecting  it. 
Closet  shelves  should  be  removable.  If  there  is  a  chest  of 
drawers  in  the  closet,  it  should  stand  well  up  from  the  floor, 
so  that  the  space  underneath  can  be  easily  cleaned  without 
removing  the  drawers.  The  floor  should  be  so  made  as  to 
look  well  without  a  covering.  Hard  wood  is  best,  but  soft 
wood  painted  is  better  than  the  costliest  carpet. 

The  Furniture  of  the  Bedroom.  —  The  necessary  furniture 
of  a  bedroom  consists  of  a  bed,  a  dresser,  a  washstand,  a 
towel  rack,  a  table,  and  a  few  chairs.  A  screen  and  a  clothes 
rack  for  airing  clothing  and  bedding  are  desirable.  All  of 
these  should  be  of  light  weight,  and  should  stand  high  from 
the  floor. 

The  Bed.  —  If  it  is  necessary  for  two  persons  to  occupy 
the  same  room,  each  should  have  a  separate  bed.  The  best 
beds  are  those  of  brass  or  iron.  The  simplicity  with  which 
these  beds  are  constructed  makes  it  possible  to  keep  them 
almost  dust-free,  while  the  metal  furnishes  a  cold  welcome 
to  the  bedroom  pest,  which  the  most  careful  housekeeping 
cannot,  in  these  days  of  public  conveyances,  prevent  from 
occasionally  making  its  way  into  the  house.  The  brass 
beds  are  generally  considered  the  more  beautiful,  but,  be- 


272  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


sides  being  more  expensive,  they  require  more  care  to  keep 
them  bright,  and  are  no  more  healthful  than  the  iron  ones. 
The  bed  should  have  a  woven  wire  spring,  attached  to  an 
iron  frame  in  order  that  it  may  not  sag.  This  spring  should 
be  provided  with  a  coarse  cotton  cover  for  top  and  sides,  to 
which  should  be  attached  tapes  for  keeping  it  in  place. 
Over  the  spring  should  come  the  mattress.  The  kind  of 
mattress  used  is  a  matter  of  personal  choice.  Hair  mat- 
tresses are,  in  many  respects,  the  most  desirable.  An 
objection  to  them,  however,  is  that  they  are  too  yielding, 
and  do  not  support  the  body  in  the  horizontal  position  most 
conducive  to  healthful  rest.  An  excellent  combination  may 
be  made  by  placing  a  thin  hair  or  wool  mattress  over  one  of 
harder  material.  It  is  best  to  have  the  heavier  mattress,  at 
least,  made  in  two  parts  for  ease  in  turning.  The  mattress 
should  be  encased  in  a  cotton  cloth  to  protect  the  tick. 
Such  a  case  should  be  washed  two  or  three  times  a  year. 
The  cleanliness  of  the  bed  depends  much  on  the  size  of  the 
sheets.  These  should  be  three-quarters  of  a  yard  longer 
than  the  mattress,  and  as  much  wider.  Blankets  are  better 
than  comforters,  because  they  are  more  easily  washed.  All- 
wool  blankets  are  more  beautiful,  but  are  harder  to  wash 
and  are  no  more  healthful  than  those  which  are  part  cotton. 
The  counterpane  should  be  of  generous  size  and  of  some 
washable  material.  Pillows  should  have  removable  cases 
of  white  cloth  over  the  tick,  besides  the  pillow-slips. 

Furnishings  of  the  Dressing-table.  —  The  dressing-table 
should  have  a  cover  that  can  be  easily  laundered.  Nothing 
is  more  unlovely  or  more  unhealthful  than  silk,  velvet,  or 
woollen  furnishings  for  a  dressing-table.  The  hair  receiver, 
trays,  and  any  other  article  forming  part  of  the  equipment 
should  be  of  metal  or  china.  The  latter  is  better,  because 
more  easily  cleaned. 

Furnishings   of  the  Washstand.  —  The  washstand   should 


THE   BEDROOM  273 

be  protected  by  a  washable  cover.  The  wall  back  of  the 
stand  may  be  painted  to  match  the  decoration  of  the  rest  of 
the  room,  or  may  be  protected  by  a  screen  or  cloth.  The 
pieces  composing  the  toilet  set  should  be  of  generous  size, 
the  bowl  broad  and  shallow,  and  the  pitcher  wide-mouthed. 

Rugs  and  Draperies.  —  Upholstered  furniture  and  woollen 
draperies  should  never  find  their  way  into  the  bedroom.  A 
few  rugs  that  can  be  easily  shaken  are  not  so  inadmissible. 
Wool,  however,  is  the  best  kind  of  a  lurking-place  for  bad 
odors,  dust,  and  bacteria.  If  the  walls  of  the  bedroom  are 
of  delicate  color,  the  draperies  and  bed  furnishings  dainty, 
the  room  can  be  made  most  attractive  without  a  single 
article  in  it  which  cannot  be  easily  cleaned. 

Exercise.  —  If  the  class  is  composed  of  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced pupils,  the  principles  of  this  lesson  can  best  be 
impressed  upon  them  by  having  them  plan  the  upper 
floor  of  a  house,  endeavoring  to  secure  for  each  bedroom 
a  maximum  of  sunlight  and  air.  Each  pupil  could  be 
required,  also,  to  prepare  a  scheme  for  decorating  and 
furnishing  a  bedroom. 

LESSON  IV 
Going  to  Bed,  and  leaving  the  Room  in  the  Morning 

Relation  of  Personal  Habits  to  Healthfulness  of  the  Bedroom. 

—  If  we  keep  in  mind  the  facts  given  in  Lessons  I.  and  II., 
we  can  easily  realize  that  our  personal  habits  may  determine 
the  healthfulness  or  unhealthfulness  of  the  bedroom.  Ee- 
membering  that  outside  wraps  and  overshoes  have  street 
dust  and  bacteria  upon  them,  we  should  leave  such  articles 
in  hall  closets,  and  not  bring  them  into  the  bedroom.  All 
clothing  should  as  often  as  possible  be  shaken  and  brushed 
in  the  open  air.  In  preparing  for  bed,  we  should  never  put 
into  the  closet  articles  of  clothing  which  have  been  next  to 


274  HANDBOOK   OF    DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


the  skin  during  the  day.     These  should  be  aired  by  an  open 
window.     A  small  rack  which  can  be  folded  and  laid  away 
during  the  day  is  convenient  for  this  purpose.     It  can  be 
used  also  for  the  airing  of  bedclothes  in  the  morning.     The 
excretions  of  the  skin  should  be  removed  at  least  once  a  day 
with  water,  and  not  be  left  to  accumulate  in  the  bedroom. 
People  differ  as  to  the  time  of  the  daily  bath ;  but  the  hands 
face,  and  feet,  which  are  most  likely  to  have  germ-laden  dus 
on  them,  should  be  washed  at  night,  even  when  the  time  f< 
the  whole  bath  is  the  morning.    Although  these  matters  com< 
more  appropriately  under  the  head  of  personal  hygiene,  the] 
are  introduced  here  because  of  the  close  dependence  of 
cleanliness  of  the  bedroom  upon  the  cleanliness  of  the  pei 
son. 

Preparation  for  the  Night.  —  In  preparing  the  bed  for  th( 
night,  the  counterpane  should  be  removed  and  carefulh 
folded.  For  the  protection  of  the  blanket,  a  sheet  or  oth< 
light  covering  may  be  put  over  the  bed.  Be  sure  that  tl 
sheets  thoroughly  protect  the  blankets  from  contact  wil 
any  part  of  the  body.  The  windows  should  always 
opened  at  night.  If  one  objects  to  dampness  in  the  air, 
a  screen  such  as  is  described  in  Lesson  VI.  may  be  placed  ii 
the  window.  The  ventilation  of  the  room  will  be  fairb 
satisfactory  if  the  window  is  opened  only  from  the  bottoi 
providing  it  is  opened  wide ;  but,  as  the  warm  air  from  th< 
body  rises,  it  is  better  to  have 'the  window  open  at  both  to] 
and  bottom.  If  the  shade  is  left  part  way  down,  this  wil 
generally  cause  it  to  rattle  and  disturb  the  slumber.  T( 
avoid  this,  roll  the  shade  to  the  top,  and  have  a  large  screei 
to  protect  the  person  in  bed  from  both  light  and  draft. 

Care  of  the  Room  on  Rising.  —  On  rising,  we  should  at  one 
take  measures  for  ridding  the  room  of  the  excreta  whicl 
have  been  given  off  from  the  body  during  the  night. 
bedclothes  should  be  removed  from  the  bed  and  hung 


THE   BEDEOOM  275 

chairs  or  a  rack  by  an  open  and,  if  possible,  sunny  window. 
The  mattress  should  be  turned  daily,  and  the  bed  frequently 
rolled  out  before  a  sunny  window.  If  occasionally  left  here 
all  day,  no  harm,  but  rather  good,  will  result ;  and  110  one 
will  object  except  that  class  of  housekeepers  whose  zeal  for 
having  the  "  room-work  done  up  early  "  leads  them  to  shut 
all  sorts  of  impurities  away  from  the  cleansing  power  of 
sun  and  air.  The  night-dress  should  be  thoroughly  aired 
before  being  put  into  the  closet.  If  one  does  her  own 
room-work  and  must  leave  the  house  soon  after  breakfast, 
she  should  clean  the  washstand  before  breakfast  in  order  to 
have  the  room  left  open  as  long  as  possible  after  the  air  has 
been  freed  from  the  pollution  of  odors  arising  from  the  slop 
jar  and  chamber.  If  time  is  not  limited,  this  can  be  left 
until  after  breakfast. 

Exercise.  —  This  lesson  may  easily  be  made  a  practical 
exercise,  if  a  model  bedroom  is  provided.  Pupils  can  go 
through  the  preparations  for  retiring  and  for  leaving  the 
room  in  the  morning,  explaining  each  act  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  Lessons  I.  and  II. 

LESSON  V 
The  Daily  and  Weekly  Cleaning  of  the  Bedroom 

The  Daily  Cleaning.  —  The  bedroom  should  be  aired  during 
the  breakfast  time,  according  to  the  directions  given  in  the 
last  lesson.  Unless  the  weather  is  very  cold,  the  windows 
should  be  left  open  while  the  cleaning  is  being  done. 

Cleaning  the  Washstand.  —  Examine  the  soap-dish.  If  it 
is  dirty,  wash  it  in  the  bowl  and  dry  on  a  cloth  kept  for  the 
purpose.  Wash  and  wipe  the  bowl  thoroughly.  Take  the 
slop  jar  and  the  chamber  to  the  bathroom.  Empty  them, 
rinse  with  cold  water,  and  wipe  them  dry.  If,  because 
there  is  no  bathroom  in  the  house,  or  it  is  not  easily  accessi- 


276  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

ble,  a  pail  must  be  brought  into  the  bedroom,  set  it  on  a 
cloth  kept  for  that  purpose.  After  emptying  the  contents 
of  the  jar  and  chamber,  rinse  them  with  water  from  the 
pitcher,  drying  as  before.  The  pitcher  should  next  be 
filled,  after  having  been  rinsed  to  free  it  from  probable 
settlings.  Kemove  the  soiled  towels  and  place  clean  ones 
on  the  rack. 

Making  the  Bed.  —  The  bedding  having  been  thoroughly 
aired  and  the  mattress  turned,  the  bed  is  ready  for  making. 
Put  on  the  under  sheet,  tucking  it  in  securely  under  the 
mattress  at  top,  bottom,  and  sides.  Put  on  the  upper  sheet 
and  blankets.  Tuck  them  in  at  the  foot,  but  allow  them  to 
fall  at  the  sides  of  the  mattress.  Turn  the  upper  sheet 
down  over  the  blankets.  Put  on  the  counterpane  and 
pillows,  beating  and  smoothing  the  latter  well. 

General  Care.  —  Brush  the  dust  from  the  floor.  Dust  all 
furniture  with  a  soft  cloth.  Arrange  the  articles  on  the 
dresser  and  table.  It  is  always  well  to  wipe  up  the  floor 
with  a  damp  cloth  after  the  dusting  has  been  done.  If  it  is 
impossible  to  do  this  daily,  let  it  be  done  as  often  at  least  as 
two  or  three  times  a  week. 

The  Weekly  Cleaning.  —  If  convenient,  and  the  day  is  suit- 
able, remove  the  mattresses  to  a  sunny  porch,  and  leave  them 
while  the  room  is  being  swept.  If  the  room  contains  rugs 
and  any  unwashable  draperies,  remove  them  to  some  out- 
door place  where  they  can  be  properly  beaten  and  cleaned. 
Brush  the  floor  of  the  closet,  and  wipe  with  a  wet  cloth, 
drying  thoroughly.  Wash  the  toilet  articles  with  soap  and 
water,  and  place  them  on  the  floor  of  the  closet.  Kemove 
the  cover  from  the  washstand.  Put  it  into  the  wash,  or,  if 
it  is  not  soiled,  shake  it  thoroughly  by  the  open  window,  and 
put  it  into  the  closet.  Dust  all  articles  on  the  dressing-table, 
and  any  small  ornaments,  and  put  them  away  in  a  drawer. 
Brush  the  dust  from  the  pictures,  the  furniture,  and  the 


THE  BEDROOM  277 


woodwork.  Then  brush  the  floor.  Allow  the  dust  to 
settle,  and,  in  the  meantime,  clean  the  looking-glass  and 
the  windows.  Next  dust  the  room  thoroughly  with  a  soft 
cloth.  Wipe  the  floor  with  a  damp  cloth,  and  replace  the 
furniture.  It  is  well  occasionally  to  wipe  the  ceiling  and 
wall  with  a  cloth  tied  over  a  broom,  or  with  a  long-handled 
brush  made  for  the  purpose.  If  the  room  is  carpeted,  the 
method  of  cleaning  is  much  the  same,  but  in  this  case  there 
is  so  much  more  dust  that  light  furniture  should  be  removed 
from  the  room  and  heavy  furniture  covered  with  cloths. 
The  carpet  should  be  wiped  the  last  thing  with  weak 
ammonia  water. 

Exercise.  —  The  methods  of  cleaning  described  in  this 
lesson  can  be  illustrated  in  the  model  bedroom.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  furniture  of  the  room,  there  should  be  provided 
a  large  floor-brush,  a  ceiling-brush,  a  whisk  broom,  a  pail, 
soap,  and  a  plentiful  supply  of  soft  rags  and  dusting  cloths. 


LESSON  VI 
The  Care  of  the  Sick 

Need  of  Healthful  Conditions  in  the  Sick-room.  —  Especial 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  conditions  of  the  sick-room 
healthful.  Here  the  invalid  spends,  not  merely  one-third 
of  his  time,  but  all  of  it.  On  account  of  his  weakness,  he 
is  unable  to  resist  harmful  influences.  The  amount  of 
waste  material  thrown  off  from  the  body  is  generally  much 
increased,  as  is  shown  by  the  wasting  of  the  body.  What 
we  have  learned  in  regard  to  the  care  of  bedrooms  in 
general  we  may  apply  to  the  care  of  a  sick-room,  keeping 
in  mind  always  the  need  of  extra  precautions  in  ventilating, 
cleaning,  and  in  other  ways  preventing  the  accumulation  of 
harmful  substances. 


278  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Ventilation.  —  In  order  that  the  air  of  the  room  may  be 
kept  fresh,  make  a  screen  for  the  window,  having  a  frame 
like  that  of  an  ordinary  wire  screen.  Over  the  frame  tack 
a  piece  of  flannel.  This  screen,  placed  in  an  open  window, 
admits  fresh  air,  but  excludes  dampness.  At  night,  never 
turn  the  light  low,  for  the  gas  or  oil  is  likely  to  escape 
unburned,  thus  polluting  the  air.  In  order  that  the  patient 
may  not  be  disturbed  by  the  bright  light,  have  a  small  paper 
screen  to  hang  between  him  and  the  light,  or  have  a  large 
screen  to  shut  off  the  light  wholly  from  the  bed.  With 
these  precautions,  the  air  can  be  kept  reasonably  good  for 
several  hours.  The  room  must,  however,  have  a  thorough 
airing  at  least  once  a  day.  This  may  be  done  without  injury 
to  the  patient,  if  these  directions  are  followed :  put  a  small, 
light,  perfectly  clean  shawl  around  the  patient's  head,  and 
pin  it  under  his  chin ;  one  end  thrown  lightly  over  his  face 
will  furnish  further  protection,  if  needed;  put  an  extra 
blanket  on  the  bed ;  double  a  sheet  lengthwise,  and  put  it 
on  the  side  of  the  bed  toward  the  window,  fastening  it  to 
the  head  and  the  foot  of  the  bed,  and  having  it  come  high 
enough  to  shield  the  bed  completely ;  open  all  the  windows, 
and  leave  them  open  for  half  an  hour  at  least. 

Care  of  the  Bed.  —  The  care  of  the  bed  is  extremely  impor- 
tant, not  only  for  the  comfort  of  the  patient,  but  for  his 
safety.  The  sheets  should  be  changed  at  least  once  a  day. 
Unless  a  patient  is  suffering  from  some  contagious  disease, 
the  sheets  which  are  removed  can  usually  be  cleansed  suffi- 
ciently by  sunlight  and  fresh  air  to  permit  of  their  being 
used  again.  In  the  morning,  remove  both  sheets,  or,  at  least, 
the  under  one,  which  receives  more  of  the  bodily  excreta 
than  the  upper  one.  Hang  this  sheet  in  the  open  air,  in  the 
sun,  if  possible.  Take  it  in  at  night,  and  have  it  thoroughly 
dry  and  warm  for  use  the  next  morning.  Much  of  the  labor 
of  washing  may,  in  this  way,  be  saved,  without  endangering 


THE  BEDROOM  279 


the  comfort  or  safety  of  the  patient.  Whether  one  or  both 
sheets  are  to  be  changed,  and  whether  the  change  shall  be 
made  only  in  the  morning,  or  both  in  the  morning  and  at 
night,  as  well  as  the  frequency  of  washing,  will  depend 
upon  the  severity  of  the  sickness.  A  sheet0  folded  twice 
and  stretched  across  the  bed  under  the  patient's  body  is  a 
great  protection  to  the  under  sheet,  and  is  easier  to  change. 
It  is  necessary,  however,  to  pin  it  down  very  carefully  with 
safety  pins,  or  it  will  prove  an  uncomfortable  addition. 

Changing  the  Sheets.  —  In  order  to  change  the  sheets  with- 
out disturbing  the  patient  unnecessarily,  remove  the  sheet 
from  half  of  the  bed,  and  replace  it  with  a  clean  one.  Push 
the  soiled  sheet  up  toward  the  patient,  and  also  the  clean 
sheet.  The  patient  can  then  move,  or  be  moved,  on  to  the 
clean  sheet,  and  the  other  side  of  the  bed  covered  with  it. 
Fasten  the  sheet  securely  to  the  mattress  with  large  safety 
pins ;  this  prevents  the  possibility  of  wrinkling.  The  lower 
sheet  should  be  particularly  well  tucked  in  at  the  top.  If 
the  sheet  is  short,  sacrifice  the  foot  rather  than  the  head. 
In  putting  on  the  upper  sheet,  this  must  be  reversed.  Tuck 
in  well  at  the  foot,  and,  if  necessary,  protect  the  counter- 
pane with  a  large  handkerchief. 

Changing  the  Nightclothes.  —  In  putting  a  night  garment 
on  a  helpless  patient,  gather  the  back  of  it  into  loose  folds 
from  top  to  bottom.  Holding  these  in  the  right  hand,  with 
the  left  raise  the  patient's  head,  and  slip  the  garment  over 
it,  the  folded  part  coming  under  his  neck.  Put  the  arms  of 
the  patient  into  the  sleeves,  and  gently  draw  down  the 
garment.  In  removing,  reverse  the  process.  Pull  the  gar- 
ment up  into  folds  under  the  neck.  Remove  the  arms  from 
the  sleeves ;  raise  the  head  with  one  hand,  and  take  off  the 
garment  with  the  other. 

Bathing  the  Patient.  —  For  the  bath,  there  should  be,  at 
the  bedside,  a  blanket,  a  basin  of  water  from  90°  to  100°  F., 


280  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

a  Turkish  towel,  a  face  towel,  a  washrag,  and  a  piece  of 
pure  soap.  Floating  soaps  are  best  for  this  purpose.  Re- 
move all  of  the  patient's  clothes ;  put  him  in  a  blanket,  and 
cover  him.  Put  the  face  towel  under  his  head.  Wash  his 
face,  neck,  au^L  ears,  using  no  soap  upon  the  face.  Dry  well 
with  the  face  towel.  Put  this  towel  away.  Lay  one  arm 
on  the  bath  towel ;  wash  and  dry.  Repeat  with  the  other. 
In  the  same  way,  wash  one  leg  at  a  time.  Finally,  bathe 
the  chest  and  back.  Rub  the  back  with  alcohol  to  harden 
the  skin  and  prevent  bed-sores.  Put  on  the  patient's  night- 
clothes,  and  remove  the  blanket. 

Combing  the  Hair.  —  If  the  hair  is  long,  it  should  be  pai 
through  the  middle,  and  each  side  divided  into  two  part 
The  front  hair  on  each  side  should  be  braided  for  a  littl< 
distance ;  then  this  part  should  be  drawn  back,  and  braid* 
in  with  the  back  section  on  the  same  side. 

Giving  the  Medicines.  —  Medicines  should  be  kept  out 
sight  of  the  patient.  Glasses,  spoons,  a  napkin,  and  any- 
thing else  needed  in  administering  the  medicines,  shoul< 
be  kept  on  a  little  tray,  on  which  is  a  dainty  doily.  Th< 
glasses  and  spoons  should  be  kept  bright  and  shining, 
giving  medicine,  put  a  napkin  under  the  patient's  chin,  ai 
have  the  medicine  in  a  glass,  instead  of  bringing  the  botth 
to  the  bedside. 

Sanitary  Precautions.  —  The  floor  of  a  sick-room  should 
wiped  every  day  with  water.  The  furniture  should  be  kepi 
free  from  dust,  all  unnecessary  articles,  and  those  especially 
likely  to  harbor  dust,  being  removed  from  the  room.  Every- 
thing used  about  the  patient,  or  in  the  room,  should 
spotlessly  clean.  Disinfectants  may  be  dispensed  with  ii 
non-contagious  diseases,  but  soap  must  never  be  spared. 
The  chamber  should  be  kept  in  the  closet.  It  should 
provided  with  a  sanitary  rubber  cover,  which  prevents  th< 
escape  of  odors,  and  is  of  light  weight,  and  noiseless.  This 


THE  BEDROOM  281 


cover  may  be  used  also  on  the  bedpan.  A  little  water  should 
always  be  poured  into  a  chamber  or  bedpan  before  it  is  used, 
thus  facilitating  its  cleaning.  These  articles  should  always 
be  washed  with  soap  after  being  used  by  the  sick. 

Care  of  Flowers.  —  Flowers  should  never  be  kept  in  a  sick- 
room after  they  begin  to  fade.  The  stems  should  be  cut 
every  morning,  the  vases  thoroughly  washed,  and  the  flow- 
ers put  into  fresh  water.  At  night  they  should  be  removed 
from  the  room  to  a  cool  place. 

Exercises.  —  This  lesson  is  especially  well  suited  to  prac- 
tical illustration.  The  directions  given  for  changing  and 
securing  the  sheets,  for  changing  the  nightclothes,  and  for 
bathing  the  patient,  will  serve  as  a  guide  for  three  highly 
practical  and  useful  demonstrations. 

LESSON  VII 

Feeding  the  Sick 

Duty  of  the  Nurse.  —  The  feeding  of  the  sick  is  a  very 
important  matter.  In  acute  diseases,  proper  food  is  as 
necessary  as  medicine ;  while,  in  many  chronic  diseases,  diet 
may  be  the  only  means  of  cure.  In  ordering  and  preparing 
food  for  the  sick,  the  physician  and  nurse  have  each  distinct 
duties.  It  is  for  the  physician  to  determine  what  the  pa- 
tient should  eat,  and  for  the  nurse  to  follow  his  orders 
intelligently.  If  these  orders  are  very  explicit,  the  nurse 
needs  only  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  cooking ;  but  if 
they  are  indefinite,  —  if,  for  example,  he  orders  a  liquid 
diet,  without  specifying  what  foods  are  included  under  such 
a  designation,  —  the  nurse  has  need  of  some  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  invalid  feeding. 

Liquid  Diet,  or  Food  for  very  Sick  Patients.  —  A  very  sick 
patient  may  have  more  need  of  nourishment  than  a  well 
person.  An  acute  disease  is  usually  accompanied  by  fever. 


282  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Fever  indicates  tliat  the  tissues  are  being  rapidly  burned 
out  and  destroyed.  This  creates  a  need  of  food  with  which 
to  replace  these  lost  tissues.  Unfortunately,  just  at  the 
time  when  the  need  of  food  is  greatest,  the  digestive  appa- 
ratus is  likely  to  be  out  of  order.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
digestive  organs  to  make  insoluble  foods  soluble,  and  thus 
ready  to  be  carried  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body.  This 
they  can  do  in  health.  In  sickness,  however,  their  work,  in 
part  at  least,  must  be  done  for  thenr.  Hence  the  very  sick 
should,  as  a  rule,  be  given  only  soluble  foods.  These  may 
be  naturally  soluble,  like  albumen  and  sugar,  or  they  may 
have  been  predigested.  It  is  frequently  necessary  to  have 
the  food  not  only  soluble,  but  also  very  dilute.  In  this 
form  it  is  most  easily  absorbed.  The  large  amount  of 
water  in  dilute  foods  is  valuable  for  the  washing  out  from 
the  system  of  the  waste  material  which  results  from  the 
excessive  destruction  of  tissues.  The  sick,  like  the  well, 
need  proteids  for  building  tissues,  and  also  carbohydrates 
or  fats  for  giving  heat  and  energy.  The  first  is  best  given 
to  the  very  sick  in  the  form  of  albumen,  which  is  soluble  in 
water,  or  of  digested  proteids,  which  are  known  as  peptones. 
The  first  is  found  in  meat  juices,  uncontaminated  by  indi- 
gestible substances,  and  accompanied  by  certain  mild  stimu- 
lants. White  of  egg  is  an  almost  pure  solution  of  albumen, 
but  is  not  very  dilute.  Milk  whey  contains  a  little  albu- 
men. Peptonized  foods  can  be  prepared  at  home,  or  bought 
ready  prepared.  The  heat-producing  foods  are  usually  given 
in  the  form  of  soluble  carbohydrates.  One  of  these  is  dex- 
trin, made  by  the  action  of  heat  on  starch.  It  is  found 
in  the  brown  crust  of  bread  or  of  toast.  This  can  be  dis- 
solved, and  served  as  "toast  tea."  This  familiar  article 
of  invalid  diet  is  now  being  superseded  by  the  malted 
foods  which  are  everywhere  on  sale.  These  contain  dex- 
trin and  other  soluble  carbohydrates.  The  sugars  are  also 


THE  BEDROOM  283 

soluble  carbohydrates.  As  all  starch  is  converted  by  the 
healthy  body  into  grape  sugar,  before  it  is  absorbed,  this 
form  of  sugar  is  probably  most  easily  digested.  Starch 
should  be  given  only  when  thoroughly  cooked,  and  very 
dilute,  as  in  gruels.  Fats  are  never  soluble.  They  are 
most  digestible  if  emulsified,  i.e.  divided  into  tiny  globules. 
Milk  contains  emulsified  fat.  Milk  is  usually  included  in  a 
liquid  diet.  It  contains  albumen,  sugar,  and  emulsified  fat. 
It  contains  also,  however,  casein,  which  becomes  solid  in 
the  stomach.  This  constitutes  its  chief  fault  for  food  for 
the  very  sick.  If  liine  water  be  added  to  the  milk,  the  curd 
formed  in  the  stomach  is  not  so  large.  Fruit  juices  are 
refreshing.  While  not  themselves  nourishing,  the  sugar, 
with  which  they  are  usually  served,  is  so.  They  make  a 
pleasing  variety  in  the  invalid's  food,  especially  when 
served  frozen. 

Semi-solid  Food,  or  Food  for  Convalescents  and  Patients 
whose  Digestion  is  not  seriously  Disturbed. — We  should 
bear  in  mind  that  the  very  dilute  foods  are  given  because 
the  digestion  is  impaired,  and  not  because  the  patient  does 
not  need  more  nourishment.  The  moment  he  can  digest 
more  nourishing 'food,  he  should  have  it.  When  the  doctor 
thinks  the  patient  is  able  to  digest  it,  he  orders  a  semi-solid 
diet.  This  consists  of  the  articles  included  under  liquid 
food,  and  also  of  scraped  meat,  raw  or  soft-boiled  eggs,  egg- 
nog,  egg  lemonade,  soups,  milk  toast,  soft  custards,  and  gela- 
tine preparations.  Meats,  unless  scraped,  vegetables,  fried 
foods,  and  pastry  should  never  be  given. 

Full  Diet.  —  When  a  patient  is  put  upon  full  diet,  the 
only  duty  of  the  nurse  is  to  prepare  attractive  and  palatable 
food.  She  is  under  no  limitations  except  that  of  excluding 
notoriously  indigestible  dishes,  such  as  fried  eggs  and  fat- 
soaked  foods. 

Serving  Food.  —  In  preparing  food  for  a  sick  person,  re- 


284  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

member  that  it  should  be  served  in  the  most  attractive  way 
possible.  Beautiful  dishes,  a  small  vase  of  flowers,  and 
dainty  garnishings  for  food  may  be  the  means  of  making  a 
person  take  food  which  he  would  otherwise  reject.  If  the 
invalid  is  able  to  feed  himself,  the  food  should  be  served  on 
a  light  tray,  in  light  dishes  so  placed  as  to  be  easily  reached. 
All  hot  food  should  be  served  hot.  As  it  usually  must  be 
carried  some  distance  before  being  served,  it  should  be  care- 
fully covered.  Cold  foods  should  be  served  really  cold. 
Variety  in  foods,  and  especially  in  flavoring,  is  often  essen- 
tial. Serve  to  the  patient  in  courses  if  there  are  several 
dishes,  and  do  not  leave  soiled  dishes  in  the  patient's  room. 
The  patient's  mouth  should  be  rinsed  with  a  dilute  solution 
of  listerine  after  every  meal. 

Exercise.  —  Each  pupil  should  prepare  a  bill  of  fare,  for 
one  day,  for  a  person  on  liquid  diet,  for  one  on  semi-solid 
diet,  and  for  one  on  full  diet.  Another  useful  exercise  is 
the  preparation  of  a  tray  for  serving  food  to  an  invalid. 


LESSON  VIII 

Recipes  for  Invalid  Cookery 
(See  also  the  last  section  in  the  chapter  on  Starchy  Foods) 

Barley  Water.  —  4  tablespoons  pearl  barley,  1  quart 
water,  sugar,  lemon  juice,  lemon  rind  and  salt  to  taste. 
Wash  the  barley  thoroughly  and  soak  in  water  for  several 
hours ;  boil  for  an  hour ;  season ;  strain ;  reheat  before 
serving. 

Toast  Water. —  Stale  bread,  boiling  water.  Heat  the  bread 
in  the  oven  until  it  is  brown  and  crisp;  break  into  pieces; 
pour  over  it  an  equal  volume  of  boiling  water ;  strain ;  season 
with  salt.  Reheat  before  serving. 


THE  BEDROOM  285 


Egg-nog.  —  Yolk  of  1  egg,  J  cup  milk,  1  tablespoon  sugar, 
2  tablespoons  wine,  1  tablespoon  lime  water,  speck  of  salt, 
white  of  1  egg.  Beat  the  yolk  of  the  egg ;  add  milk,  sugar, 
wine,  lime  water,  and  salt ;  strain ;  add  white  of  egg  beaten 
stiff. 

Albumenized  Milk.  —  To  the  stiffly  beaten  white  of  an  egg 
add  one-half  a  cup  of  milk.  Stir  thoroughly  or  cover  and 
shake. 

Egg  Lemonade.  —  To  a  glass  of  lemonade  add  a  well 
beaten  egg  or  the  beaten  white  alone  and  two  tablespoons 
of  whipped  cream. 

Wine  Whey.  —  Mix  equal  parts  of  scalded  milk  and  sherry 
wine.  When  the  curd  forms,  strain. 

Beef  Essence.  —  Free  one  pound  of  round  of  beef  from  fat 
and  bone;  cut  into  small  pieces;  put  into  a  Mason  jar;  add 
a  pint  of  cold  water,  allow  to  stand  for  one-half  an  hour ; 
put  into  a  pan  of  water  and  heat  gradually  to  130°  F ;  keep 
at  about  that  temperature  for  three  hours;  or,  instead  of 
heating,  add  a  few  drops  of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
allow  to  stand  for  an  hour,  stirring  occasionally;  strain, 
season  with  salt. 

Beef  Juice.  —  Broil  a  piece  of  beef  until  the  juice  begins 
to  flow,  turning  it  frequently ;  cut  into  small  pieces ;  extract 
the  juice  with  a  hot  potato  ricer,  and  allow  to  run  into  a  hot 
glass ;  season  with  salt. 

Flour  Gruel.  —  1  tablespoon  flour,  2  cups  milk,  salt  to 
taste.  Scald  most  of  the  milk  in  a  double  boiler ;  thicken 
with  the  flour  moistened  with  the  rest  of  the  milk.  Cook 
forty  minutes. 

Scraped  Meat.  —  Cut  round  of  beef  into  thin  strips ;  scrape 
with  a  sharp  knife  to  free  the  fibre  from  the  connective 
tissue;  season  the  fibre  with  salt,  and  spread  between  thin 
slices  of  bread,  or  make  into  balls  and  cook  slightly.  The 
cooking  can  best  be  accomplished  by  putting  the  balls  into  a 


286 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


hot  ungreased  frying  pan,  and  shaking  them  to  keep  them 
from  sticking.. 

Junket.  —  1  cup  milk,  2  tablespoons  sugar,  1  tablespoon 
wine,  1^  teaspoons  liquid  rennet.  Dissolve  sugar  in  wine; 
heat  milk  to  about  120°  F;  add  wine  and  rennet;  stand 
in  a  warm  place  until  it  forms ;  chill ;  serve  with  cream  and 
sugar. 


APRIL 


THE   LAUNDRY 

I.   PRELIMINARY  COURSE 
II.   ADVANCED  COURSE 

BY  MARY  B.  VAIL 

GRADUATE  AND  LATE  INSTRUCTOR  IN  LAUNDRY  WORK  IN  PRATT  INSTITUTE  ; 

NOW  INSTRUCTOR  IN  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  IN  THE  MANUAL  TRAINING  HIGH  SCHOOL, 

INDIANAPOLIS,  IND. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  LAUNDRY 

BY  MARY  B.  VAIL 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

American  Publications.  —  Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning  (illus- 
trated), Ellen  H.  Richards  and  S.  Maria  Elliott  (Home  Science  Pub. 
Co.).  American  Pure  Food  Cook  Book  and  Household  Economist; 
Department  of  Laundry,  Mary  B.  Vail  (Geo.  M.  Hill  Co.,  Chicago). 

English  Publications.  —  Teacher's  Manual  of  Elementary  Laundry 
Work,  F.  L.  Calder  and  E.  E.  Mann  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  London 
and  New  York).  Mrs.  Lord's  Laundry  Work  for  Scholars  (T.  Nelson 
&  Sons,  London).  Laundry  Work  for  Homes  and  Schools,  Florence 
B.  Jack  (Whittaker  &  Co.,  Edinburgh  and  London).  Fragments  of 
Science  (Water),  Tyndall. 

Current  Literature. — Nineteenth  Century,  vol.  41,  pp.  224,  232; 
Cosmopolitan,  vol.  18,  p.  271 ;  Review  of  Reviews,  vol.  12,  p.  541 ; 
Eclectic,  vol.  125,  p.  800 ;  Temple  Bar,  vol.  109,  p.  375 ;  Westminster 
Review,  vol.  147,  p.  698 ;  All  the  Year  Round,  vol.  13,  p.  248,  vol.  73, 
p.  13;  St.  James,  vol.  11,  p.  89;  Leisure  Hour,  vol.  10,  p.  727;  Popu- 
lar Science  Monthly,  vol.  46,  p.  649. 

Facts. 

I.  EQUIPMENT  FOR  LAUNDRY  (for  class  of  eight).  — 12 
small  fibre  or  wooden  tubs,  1  large  fibre  or  wooden  tub,  8 
small  rubbing  boards,  1  wringer  on  large  tub,  2  small 
wringers,  1  fibre  or  tin  pail,  1  tin  dipper,  1  clothes  basket, 
1  clothes  stick,  1  medium  sized  copper-bottom  boiler,  6  long 
u  289 


290  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

benches  for  the  tubs,  8  small  skirt  boards  (3|-  to  4  ft.  long), 
8  covers  for  kitchen  table  (blankets  and  unbleached  muslin), 

2  clothes  horses,  1  fringe  brush,  3  soft  brushes  for  flannel, 

3  whisk  brooms  for  sprinkling;  flat  irons,  4  seven  pound 
irons,  8  four  pound  irons,  8  five  pound  irons,  4  three  pound 
irons,  8  Troy  polishers ;  10  yds.  cheese  cloth,  3  roller  hand 
towels,  holders,  wax,  paper,  old  cloth,  toilet  pins,  safety 
pins,  tape ;   1  granite  soap  cooker,  1  granite  starch  cooker, 
1  teakettle,  1  dishpan,  3  large  bowls  (2  qt.,  4  qt.,  6  qt.), 
8  small  bowls  (1  pt.),  2  tin  measuring  cups  (for  thirds  and 
fourths),  6  tablespoons,  6  teaspoons,  drying  closet  inside  or 
posts,  line  and  clothes  pins  for  outside ;  laundry  stove ;  if 
tubs  are  stationary,  have  not  less  than  nine  with  hot  and 
cold  water  connections ;  stools  should  be  supplied  for  short 
girls  either  for  washing  or  ironing. 

II.  STUDY  OF  MATERIALS.  —  Water,  the  chemist  tells  us, 
is  a  combination  of  hydrogen  two  parts  and  oxygen  one 
part.  We  know  it  as  the  transparent,  almost  tasteless,  liquid 
which  falls  from  the  clouds  and  is  collected  in  lakes,  rivers, 
cisterns,  and  wells  for  us.  Sometimes  we  find  it  soft,  as  rain 
or  river  water,  but  if  it  has  flowed  over  limestone  it  is  hard 
water.  When  water  falls  as  rain,  it  catches  some  of  the  air 
and  the  gases,  especially  carbon  dioxide.  This  gas  has  the 
property  of  combining  with  lime  and  forming  a  soluble  salt 
which  in  the  water  makes  it  hard.  We  know  by  the  feeling 
of  the  water  if  it  is  soft  or  hard,  also  when  we  use  soap  in  it. 
Soft  water  lathers  at -once,  but  hard  water  does  not  until  all 
the  lime  in  it  has  combined  with  the  soap  to  form  that  curd 
or  lime  soap  that  you  see  on  top  of  the  water.  The  simplest 
way  to  soften  water  is  by  boiling,  then  the  lime  and  gas 
separate,  the  gas  goes  off  and  the  lime  falls  to  the  bottom. 
A  familiar  example  is  the  lime  or  fur  in  the  teakettle.  Our 
grandmothers  used  wood  ashes  to  soften  hard  water ;  to-day 
we  use  the  active  principle  of  the  ashes  —  lye  or  sal-soda — for 


THE   LAUNDRY 


291 


.e  same  purpose.    These  strong  alkalies  must  be  used  with 
the  greatest  caution  or  the  clothes  will  be  injured.     The 
ilder  alkalies,  ammonia  and  borax,  may  be  used  without 
'ear  of  harm  but  they  are  expensive.     For  best  results  we 
eed   soft  water  in  the   laundry,  so   hard  water  must  be 
•ftened  in  some  way. 

Soap  is  a  combination  of  a  fatty  acid  and  an  alkali.     If 
ell  made,  it  has  little  more  than  a  trace  of  fat  or  alkali 
ift  over.     Strong  or  laundry  soaps  always  have  an  excess 
f  alkali  in  them.     Soap  powders  have  a  large  amount  of 
kali  in  them,  and  liquid  preparations  are  alkalies  in  solu- 
ion  and  water.     The  effect  on  the  hands  will  tell  you  the 
ature  of  these  compounds.     The  alkali  takes  up  the  oil  in 
e  skin  and  eats  the  skin  as  well  as  the  dirt  and  the  fabric. 
Soap  decomposes  in  water,  the  alkali  takes  hold  upon  the 
ily  dirt,  while  the  fatty  acid  forms  an  emulsion  and  gives 
the  water  that  milky  look. 

Bluing  is  supposed  to  make  the  clothes  white  in  lieu  of 
un  and  air.  When  clothes  become  yellow  from  careless 
washing  and  rinsing  and  we  haven't  a  grass  plot  to  bleach 
them  in,  we  resort  to  bluing  to  overcome  the  yellow  color. 
The  first  bluing  used  was  indigo,  a  vegetable  product.  Now 
ultramarine  blue  is  more  commonly  used.  It  comes  to  us  in 
little  blue  balls,  blocks,  or  powder.  This  ultramarine  was 
originally  the  stone  lapis  lazuli  ground  up,  but  it  is  now 
made  chemically.  Both  indigo  and  ultramarine  are  in- 
soluble blues.  The  fine  particles  are  held  in  suspension 
in  the  water  and  settling  on  the  cloth  give  it  the  desired  tint. 
Prussian  blue  comes  as  a  liquid  and  gives  us  a  bright  blue. 
It  is  a  salt  of  iron.  With  heat  and  a  strong  alkali  it  is 
changed  to  another  salt  of  iron  commonly  known  as  iron 
rust.  If  clothes  are  well  rinsed,  no  ill  effect  should  follow 
.ts  use.  Perhaps  to  its  careless  use  are  due  the  fine  rust 
spots  that  sometimes  appear.  Aniline  blue  is  rarely  used 


292  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

outside  of  the  public  laundry.  It  is  a  strong  dye  that  will 
not  set  in  an  alkaline  medium,  hence  thorough  rinsing  is 
necessary.  The  laundries  usually  neutralize  any  alkali 
with  an  acid  before  using  the  aniline  blue.  If  the  acid 
is  too  strong,  the  strength  of  the  material  is  impaired. 

Starch  is  found  in  all  vegetables  in  some  stage  of  their 
growth.  It  is  the  food  stored  for  the  use  of  the  young 
plant,  and  is  abundant  in  the  seeds  and  tubers,  but  may  also 
be  found  in  the  leaves  and  stalks.  Under  the  microscope 
starch  is  a  grain  varying  in  size  and  shape  according  to  the 
plant  from  which  it  is  taken.  Being  the  stored  food  for  the 
young  plant,  starch  is  in  its  most  compact  form,  lacking 
water.  This  it  readily  absorbs,  especially  near  the  boiling 
point  of  water,  and  during  this  absorption  or  hydration  it 
often  increases  to  twenty  times  its  volume.  Raw  starch  is 
a  glistening  white  powder  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  more 
nearly  soluble  in  boiling  water.  Its  stiffening  power  makes 
starch  useful  in  the  laundry.  Corn  starch  is  most  commonly 
used  for  laundry  purposes,  next  wheat,  then  potato,  and  rice 
starch  is  used  for  fine  work. 

Wax,  the  product  of  the  bees,  seems  to  fill  up  the  iron  and 
make  it  run  smooth. 

III.  RULES  AND  RECIPES.  —  Soap  solution  is  a  most  con- 
venient way  of  using  soap.  To  one  small  bar  of  white  soap 
shaven  fine,  allow  2  quarts  of  water,  let  it  boil  until  the  soap 
is  dissolved,  use  while  hot.  A  cake  of  common  yellow  laundry 
soap  shaven  would  require  3  or  4  quarts  of  water. 

Thin  starch.  In  the  granite  pan  put  f  cup  starch,  and 
-J  of  level  teaspoonful  of  lard,  stir  smooth  with  ^  cupful  of 
cold  water,  add  gradually  3  pints  of  boiling  water,  stir- 
ring constantly.  Let  it  boil  well,  then  add  1  pint  of  cold 
water  to  thin  and  cool  it.  If  it  is  still  too  thick,  it  may  be 
further  reduced.  This  starch  will  be  right  for  ordinary 
uses. 


THE   LAUNDRY  293 

Thick  starch,  is  used  for  collars,  cuffs,  shirt  waists,  and 
•shirt  work.  Make  1  cupful  of  starch  smooth  with  J.  cupful 
of  cold  water,  add  J  of  a  level  teaspoonful  of  shaven  white 
paraffin  and  4  cupfuls  of  boiling  water.  Let  this  boil  up 
several  times  and  add  a  little  bluing. 

Clear  starch  for  fine  muslins  may  be  made,  using  one 
level  tablespoonful  of  starch  to  one  quart  of  water,  let  it 
boil  well.  Rice  starch  is  preferred  for  fine  work.  The 
water  off  of  cooked  rice  may  be  used,  or  the  starch  may  be 
made  in  the  following  manner.  Wash  2  tablespoonfuls 
of  rice,  put  it  in  a  saucepan  with  1  quart  of  water  and 
place  it  on  the  back  of  the  stove  where  it  will  not  burn  or 
boil  over.  Stir  it  frequently  at  first,  and  let  it  cook  until 
the  rice  is  a  pulp,  then  strain  it  through  a  flannel  bag  with- 
out squeezing.  Dilute  with  cold  water  if  necessary,  and  use 
it  warm. 

Raw  starch  is  often  used  instead  of  thick  starch  for  col- 
lars, cuffs,  etc.  Make  one  tablespoonful  of  starch  smooth 
with  a  little  water,  then  add  the  balance  of  a  pint  of  warm 
water.  Use  at  once;  if  it  stands  and  settles,  stir  it  well 
before  using  again. 

Bran  water  may  be  used  for  delicate  colors  when  soap 
would  affect  them.  Tie  -J-  pound  of  bran  in  a  cloth,  and 
pour  over  it  2  quarts  of  boiling  water ;  when  it  cools,  use  it 
as  you  would  suds. 

Taking  out  Stains.  — Fruit  stains,  if  fresh,  will  come  out 
with  boiling  water.  Stretch  the  stained  part  over  a  bowl, 
and  pour  absolutely  boiling  water  through  it  from  a  height 
until  the  stain  disappears. 

Coffee  stains,  if  fresh,  will  yield  to  the  same  treatment  as 
fruit  stains. 

Tea  and  cocoa  stains  are  hard  to  remove.  Soak  them  in 
cold  water  and  borax  before  using  boiling  water  as  for  fruit 
stains. 


294  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


iter, 


Blood  stains  should  be  first  soaked  in  clear  cold  wat 
then  use  soap  and  water. 

Milk  stains  should  be  washed  out  while  fresh  in  col( 
water. 

Mildew,  if  not  too  old,  may  be  removed.  Apply  soft  soa] 
and  powdered  chalk  to  the  spot.  Keep  it  moist,  and  lay  it 
in  the  sun. 

Ink  stains  may  come  out  if  they  are  soaked  in  milk  for  a 
day  or  two ;  allowing  the  milk  to  sour  on  the  goods  rather 
helps  than  hinders  the  process ;  but  if  the  material  is  colored, 
it  may  also  take  out  the  color. 

The  use  of  an  acid  for  removing  stains  when  other  agents 
fail  is  not  advised,  for  it  attacks  not  only  the  stains  but  the 
fabric  itself.  If  you  wish  to  try  an  acid,  proceed  as  follows : 
Fill  a  bowl  with  boiling  water,  over  it  stretch  the  stained 
part.  Drop  upon  the  stain  a  very  little  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid,  using  a  medicine  dropper.  Occasionally  dip  the  stain 
into  the  water,  then  continue  applying  the  acid  until  the 
stain  disappears.  Always  have  a  second  bowl  containing 
ammonia  and  water  to  rinse  the  article  in  so  that  the  acid 
may  be  perfectly  neutralized. 

IV.  Washing  clothes  is  necessary  from  the  points  of  com- 
fort, appearance,  and  health,  both  personal  and  public. 
Dirt  is  largely  of  an  oily  nature.  The  alkali  of  the  soap 
combines  with  the  dirt  to  form  a  soapy  compound  which  is 
soluble,  and  is  carried  away  in  the  water.  Water  is  a  great 
dirt  carrier,  and  should  be  used  in  abundance  for  washing 
clothes.  Soft  water  is  preferred ;  hard  water  may  be  soft- 
ened by  boiling,  by  the  judicious  use  of  sal  soda  in  solution, 
or  by  the  use  of  a  strong  soap.  Soaking  clothes  in  soapy 
water  for  an  hour  or  more  before  washing  makes  the  work 
lighter.  Never  wash  a  tubful  of  clothes  in  the  water  in 
which  they  have  been  soaked.  Wring  them  out  into  a  clean 
suds,  and  with  the  rubbing  board  or  the  hands  loosen  the 


THE  LAUNDRY  295 

dirt.  If  all  the  dirt  is  not  removed  by  the  rubbing,  put  a 
little  soap  on  to  the  soiled  part  before  dropping  it  into  the 
boiler.  Have  cold  water  and  soap  in  the  boiler,  let  the 
water  heat  and  boil  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes.  The 
longer  time  is  necessary  for  clothes  from  a  sick-room,  for 
disease  germs  are  killed  by  boiling.  Have  ready  warm, 
clean  rinsing  water ;  have  it  warm  because  cold  water  would 
harden  the  soapy  dirt  on  to  the  clothes,  and  necessitate  rub- 
bing to  remove  it.  Rinse  the  clothes  in  several  waters,  or 
until  the  water  is  clear.  A  generous  supply  of  water  is 
very  essential,  especially  in  rinsing  to  carry  off  all  the  dirt, 
and  leaves  the  clothes  white  and  clean.  Make  bluing  in  a 
small  utensil  and  pour  it  into  a  tub  of  water  until  the  water 
seems  sky  blue  when  taken  in  the  hand.  Solid  blue  must 
be  tied  in  a  flannel  bag  and  squeezed  out  of  it  into  the 
water.  The  bluing  water  must  be  used  at  once,  not  be 
allowed  to  stand  and  settle.  Stir  up  the  water  well  that 
the  color  may  be  even,  shake  out  the  articles  to  be  blued, 
and  put  them  into  the  water  a  few  at  a  time.  Wring  them 
out  at  once,  shake  -them  and  hang  them  to  dry  in  the  shape 
you  wish  them  to  be  in  when  worn.  A  little  work  here  will 
make  ironing  much  easier.  When  dry,  fold  clothes,  don't 
crush  them  into  a  basket.  For  sprinkling  have  a  clean 
table,  a  bowl  of  tepid  water,  and  a  whisk  broom,  or  use  the 
tips  of  the  fingers,  to  distribute  the  water  in  fine  drops  all 
over  the  garment.  Fold  and  roll  the  article  tightly,  and 
cover  it  for  several  hours  before  ironing. 

Y,  Ironing  is  done  for  comfort  and  appearance,  and  is  a 
very  important  part  of  the  work.  The  table  or  board  should 
be  of  convenient  height  for  the  ironer.  It  should  be  covered 
first  with  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  heavy  flannel  or  blanket. 
Felt  may  be  procured  of  the  laundry  supply  people.  This 
should  be  tacked  on  to  the  boards.  Over  this  should  be  tied, 
or  pinned  firm,  fine  unbleached  muslin.  On  the  table  at  the 


296  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

right  of  each  ironer  should  be  found  a  clean  paper  folded 
several  times,  also  a  piece  of  old  cloth  or  cheese  cloth,  both 
to  try  and  clean  the  iron  on,  also  a  bit  of  beeswax  tied  in  a 
cloth,  and  an  iron  stand.  When  the  iron  is  hot  the  wax 
may  be  rubbed  lightly  over  it  and  then  the  iron  rubbed  on 
the  paper  to  make  it  smooth.  With  these  aids  the  iron 
should  always  be  clean  and  cool  enough  not  to  scorch  before 
it  touches  sheet  or  garment.  First  iron  trimming,  ruffles, 
and  the  parts  that  will  muss  least,  then  take  the  plainer  parts 
of  the  piece.  Fold  garments  and  all  pieces  first  lengthwise 
into  a  long  strip,  then  crosswise,  and  hang  them  to  air  on  a 
clothes  horse,  and  let  them  remain  until  perfectly  dry.  If 
garments  are  not  ironed  dry  and  aired  they  will  easily  muss. 
If  put  away  damp  they  may  mildew,  and  if  worn  or  put 
upon  a  bed  may  cause  sickness.  Embroidery  must  be  ironed 
wrong  side  up  over  several  thicknesses  of  flannel  to  bring 
out  the  design.  To  test  irons  for  heat,  touch  them  with  a 
moist  finger :  if  they  hiss,  they  are  hot ;  if  the  sound  is  a 
short  one,  they  are  probably  too  hot.  The  laundress  deter- 
mines the  heat  by  holding  the  face  of  the  iron  about  four 
inches  from  her  cheek  for  a  few  seconds  :  if  too  hot  for  com- 
fort, it  is  too  hot  to  use. 

VI.  CARE  OF  LAUNDRY  AND  UTENSILS.  —  All  utensils 
must  be  washed  and  wiped  and  left  clean  and  dry  after 
washing.  The  floor  must  be  wiped  up  and  everything  left 
in  order.  Fibre  tubs  must  be  washed  and  wiped,  wooden 
tubs  in  addition  to  this  must  be  left  with  water  standing  in 
them  to  prevent  their  warping  and  leaking.  The  wringer 
must  be  wiped  off,  and  the  screws  that  hold  the  rollers 
together  loosened.  Occasionally  the  rubber  rollers  may  be 
rubbed  over  with  a  few  drops  of  kerosene  on  a  cloth,  to  clean 
them.  Kerosene  eats  rubber,  so  use  it  sparingly.  Irons 
must  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  and  always  put  away  clean. 
Scrape  the  starch  off  with  an  old  knife.  A  little  fine  salt 


THE   LAUNDRY  297 

or  scouring  brick  on  a  paper  will  scour  them  when  they 
need  it.  Bub  the  iron  over  the  paper.  When  irons  are  put 
away  for  some  time,  rub  them  over  with  mutton  tallow  or 
vaseline,  and  wrap  them  separately  in  paper.  All  tinware 
must  be  thoroughly  dried  after  washing,  to  prevent  rusting. 
Experiments  with  Bluing.  —  Fill  a  test-tube  half  full  of 
Prussian  or  aniline  blue  in  solution,  using  it  dilute,  add  a 
quarter  of  a  teaspoonful  of  strong  solution  of  sal  soda,  and 
heat  to  boiling  point.  The  Prussian  blue  should  change  to 
the  yellow  brown  salt  of  iron,  rust.  The  aniline  should 
lose  its  intense  blue;  and  ultramarine  blue,  if  treated  in 
the  same  way,  will  resolve  itself  into  a  white  flocculent 
precipitate. 

OUTLINE  :    COURSE   I 
EIGHT  FUNDAMENTAL  LESSONS 

Each  of  these  lessons  presupposes  r  two-hour  period.  If 
only  one  hour  can  be  devoted  to  this  work,  take  the  theory 
for  one  lesson,  and  the  practice  for  another. 

Children  may  bring  their  own  clothes  for  practice  work. 

LESSON 

I.   Introduction. 

Talk  on  necessity  of  cleanliness. 
Talk  on  water,  soap,  and  alkalies,  with  experiments. 
Washing  bed  linen. 
II.   Talk  on  bluings. 

Taking  out  stains  ;  demonstration. 
Washing  table  linen. 
Ironing  bed  linen. 
III.    Talk  on  starch. 

Make  starch ;  demonstration. 
Washing  body  linen. 
Ironing  table  linen. 


298  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE- 

LES8ON 

IV.   Making  starch ;  class  work. 

Washing  body  linen :  night-dress. 

Ironing  body  linen :  waist  or  drawers. 
V.   Talk  on  dyed  goods. 

Washing  colored  apron  and  stockings. 

Ironing  night-dress  and  stockings. 
VI.   Talk  on  clear  starching. 

Making  thin  starch. 

Washing  white  apron  and  handkerchiefs. 

Air  drying  and  ironing  apron. 

Ironing  colored  apron  and  handkerchiefs. 
VII.   Talk  on  wool  fibre  and  shrinking  of  wool. 

Washing  woollen  underwear. 
VIII.   Talk  on  silk. 

Washing  silk  handkerchiefs  and  ribbons. 

OUTLINE  :    COURSE   II 
EIGHT  SUPPLEMENTARY  LESSONS 

I.   Making  starch. 

Washing  underskirt. 

II.   Washing  small  gingham  dress  and  shirt  waist. 
Making  starch. 
Ironing  underskirt. 
III.    Making  thick  starch. 

Eubbing  starch  into  parts  of  shirt  waist,  and  rough- 
dry  collars  and  cuffs. 
Ironing  gingham  dress. 

IV.   Ironing  shirt  waist  and  collars  and  cuffs. 
V.   Making  rice  starch. 

Washing  and  clear  starching  fine  muslin. 
VI.   Washing  and  ironing  embroidered  linen. 
VII.   Washing   and    ironing   embroidered   flannel,    small 

shawl,  or  woollen  dress  goods. 
VIII.   Washing  laces ;  steaming  velvet. 


THE   LAUNDRY  299 


COURSE  I:   LESSON  I 

Bed  Linen  (Pillow  Cases).  —  Introduction,  including  out- 
line of  course  and  plan  of  work. 

Talk  on  cleanliness  as  a  necessity  from  the  points  of 
appearance,  comfort,  and  personal  and  public  health. 

Talk  on  water  with  experiments  in  softening  hard  water. 

Temporary  hard  water  can  be  softened  by  boiling. 
Permanent  hard  water  cannot  be  softened  by  boiling.  Both 
can  be  softened  by  the  addition  of  an  alkali  or  soap.  Water 
for  experimental  purposes  may  be  made  temporarily  hard 
by  the  addition  of  lime  water,  permanently  hard  by  the 
addition  of  calcium  sulphate,  commonly  known  as  gypsum. 

Talk  on  soap  and  alkalies. 

Practice  Work.  —  During  talks  on  water  and  soap  have 
pillow  cases  soaking  in  warm  soapy  water.  With  a  little 
rubbing  wring  them  out  of  this  into  clean  warm  suds.  Rub 
them  on  the  board,  put  them  through  the  wringer.  Put  all 
articles  together  into  the  boiler  with  a  cold  soapy  water, 
heat  gradually,  and  let  them  boil  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes. 
Have  the  first  rinsing  water  warm,  the  second  may  be  cold. 
Put  the  articles  quickly  through  a  bluing  water,  and  hang 
them  to  dry.  Washing  and  rinsing  must  be  done  in  indi- 
vidual tubs,  boiling  and  bluing  in  one  large  boiler  or  tub. 
Wash  out  tubs,  wipe  tables,  benches,  and  utensils,  loosen 
screws  of  wringer,  and  leave  room  in  perfect  order. 

COURSE  I:   LESSON  II 

Table  Linen  (Napkins).  —  Talk  on  bluing.  Show  differ- 
ent kinds  of  bluing,  as  purchased  and  in  water  ready  for 
use.  Demonstrate  with  test-tubes  and  heat  the  effect  of  an 
alkali  (sal  soda  in  solution)  on  Prussian  and  aniline  blues 
to  bring  out  the  necessity  of  careful  rinsing. 


300  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Take  out  fruit  and  other  stains ;  demonstration. 

Practice  Work.  —  Take  out  stains  and  put  napkins  a-soak 
in  warm  soapy  water.  Dampen  and  roll  up  pillow  case. 
With  the  help  of  pupils  show  the  shaking  of  sheet  or  table- 
cloth to  straighten  the  fibre.  Wash  napkins,  boil,  rinse, 
blue,  and  hang  them  to  dry. 

Heat  irons  —  if  directly  over  a  gas  flame,  wipe  the  mois- 
ture off  several  times  before  they  become  warm.  Cover  table 
with  blanket  and  sheet,  get  out  the  paper,  cloth,  wax,  and  iron 
stand,  and  place  at  the  right  side  of  table.  Shake  and 
stretch  pillow  case  into  shape,  and  place  it  upon  the  board. 
Iron  the  hem  first,  then  iron  with  the  warp  of  the  goods, 
first  on  one  side  of  the  pillow  case,  then  the  other,  until  per- 
fectly dry.  Fold  once  lengthwise  in  the  middle,  then  again, 
and  iron  each  fold  in.  Hang  pillow  case  upon  the  bars  to 
air. 

Sheets  are  folded  once  lengthwise,  then  crosswise,  bring- 
ing hems  together.  Sprinkle  one-quarter  yard  from  the 
ends,  roll  up,  iron  ends  singly  with  a  hot  heavy  iron,  and 
balance  of  the  sheet  four  folds  together. 

COURSE  I:   LESSON  III 

Body  Linen.  (Waist  and  Drawers).  —  Talk  on  starch. 
Illustrate  by  pictures  and  with  the  microscope.  Make 
starch  for  pupils  while  clothes  are  boiling.  Demonstrate 
with  a  napkin  or  lunch  cloth  the  folding  and  ironing  of  a 
table-cloth  and  a  napkin. 

Practice  Work.  —  Put  waist  or  drawers  a-soak  in  warm 
suds. 

Dampen  and  roll  up  napkins. 

Wash  body  linen,  boil,  rinse,  blue,  starch,  and  hang  it  to 
dry.  Put  only  the  trimming  of  drawers  into  starch,  rub  it 
into  them,  and  squeeze  out  the  extra  starch.  The  entire 


THE   LAUNDKY  301 

waist  may  be  starched.  Heat  irons.  Cover  table.  Shake 
and  stretch  napkin  straight,  lay  it  right  side  up  upon  the 
table,  having  one  hem  away  from  you.  Iron  the  hem  first, 
then  iron  with  the  selvage.  Turn  the  napkin  and  iron  the 
wrong  side.  Fold  the  napkin  right  side  out,  selvages  to- 
gether, and  iron  the  fold  in,  fold  again,  making  a  long  strip, 
then  twice  crosswise,  ironing  all  folds  in.  If  napkins  are 
small  they  may  be  folded  in  thirds  like  a  screen.  A-ny  em- 
broidery must  be  ironed  on  the  wrong  side  over  several 
thicknesses  of  flannel,  and  folded  so  the  embroidery  will  be 
on  the  outside.  Be  sure  that  the  linen  is  quite  damp,  irons 
are  hot,  corners  square,  and  napkins  folded  true.  Table 
cloths  are  ironed  on  the  right  side  only,  folded  in  the  middle 
lengthwise,  and  ironed  first  one  side  and  then  the  other 
until  perfectly  dry.  They  may  be  folded  again  like  a  nap- 
kin or  to  bring  all  three  folds  on  the  outside.  A  better  way 
still  is  to  roll  the  table-cloth  lightly  over  a  large  roll,  having 
it  folded  but  once. 

COURSE  I:   LESSON  IV 

Body  Linen  (Night-dress).  —  Talk  on  necessity  of  ironing 
articles  perfectly  dry  and  airing  them  well. 

Give  directions  for  ironing  and  folding  waist  and  drawers. 

Practice  Work.  —  Put  night-dress  a-soak. 

Dampen  and  roll  up  waist  and  drawers.  Have  starch 
made  by  pupils.  Wash,  boil,  rinse,  blue,  starch,  and  hang 
night-dress  to  dry.  Put  only  trimming  into  the  starch. 

Iron  trimming  of  waist  first,  then  take  one  section  of  the 
garment  by  itself,  straighten  it  upon  the  table,  lay  the  seam 
on  the  edge  of  the  table  toward  you,  and  iron  with  the  warp 
of  the  cloth.  Arrange  the  other  sections  in  like  manner, 
never  ironing  beyond  the  seams,  and  the  garment  will  be  in 
perfect  shape  when  finished.  Fold  the  waist  in  a  long  strip, 
then  crosswise  until  little  but  trimming  appears. 


302  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Iron  the  band  of  the  drawers  first,  then  the  trimming,  and 
lastly  the  body  of  the  garment,  leaving  every  part  perfectly 
dry.  Any  embroidery  must  be  ironed  on  the  wrong  side  to 
bring  out  the  design,  and  lace  must  be  ironed  and  then 
pulled  out  to  soften  it. 

COURSE  I:   LESSON  V 

Colored  Cotton  Goods  (Gingham  Apron  and  Colored  Stock- 
ings).—  In  recent  years  dyeing  has  greatly  improved,  and 
to-day  we  rarely  find  anything  but  "fast  colors"  in  wash 
goods.  If  the  color  is  doubtful,  it  is  wise  to  wash  a  piece 
of  the  material  to  find  out  what  treatment  it  needs.  If  the 
color  runs,  salt  or  white  vinegar  may  set  it.  Use  one  table- 
spoonful  of  either  to  a  gallon  of  water.  Perhaps  it  will  be 
necessary  to  use  alum  and  water  in  the  same  proportions; 
this  also  makes  the  material  less  inflammable.  Ordinarily 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  wash  colored  material  in  a  cool  or 
moderately  warm  suds,  rinse  it  quickly,  and  hang  it  wrong 
side  out  to  dry  in  the  shade.  Always  use  a  pure  soap,  and 
never  rub  it  upon  the  material. 

Practice  Work.  —  Dampen  and  roll  up  night-dress.  Make 
soap  solution  from  direction  given  on  page  292.  Be  sure  that 
the  soap  does  not  contain  an  excess  of  alkali.  Put  enough 
of  the  soap  solution  into  a  tub  of  warm  water  to  make  a 
weak  suds,  wash  the  garment  quickly,  squeezing  the  dirt 
out  rather  than  rubbing  it,  rinse  quickly  through  several 
waters,  acidify  the  last  water  if  the  color  has  been  weakened 
by  the  soap,  starch  the  garment,  and  hang  it  out  at  once, 
wrong  side  out,  to  dry  in  the  shade.  The  sun  is  liable  to 
fade  the  color.  Colored  garments  should  never  be  allowed 
to  lie  around  wet. 

Put  stockings  into  a  clean  cool  suds  and  wash  quickly. 
If  the  color  is  doubtful,  put  the  foot  only  in  at  first,  rub  it 
well  and  soap  it  if  necessary,  turn  the  stocking  wrong  side 


THE    LAUNDKY  303 

out,  finish  the  foot,  then  quickly  wash  and  rinse  the  whole 
stocking,  and  hang  it  to  dry  wrong  side  out. 

Iron  the  trimming  of  the  night-dress  first,  then  the 
sleeves,  and  lastly  the  body.  The  ironing  board  is  needed 
here  that  the  material  may  be  ironed  singly.  Fold  the 
night-dress  into  a  long  strip,  the  width  of  the  trimming  at 
the  yoke,  double  the  sleeves  behind  the  yoke,  leaving  only 
the  trimming  visible  at  the  side,  fold  once  crosswise,  and 
hang  the  garment  to  air.  When  ready  to  put  away,  fold  the 
garment  several  times  crosswise  until  little  but  the  trimming 
shows  on  top. 

When  stockings  are  nearly  dry  put  the  left  hand  inside  of 
each  and  straighten  it,  then  as  the  hand  is  withdrawn  fol- 
low it  with  a  warm  iron  held  in  the  right  hand. 

COURSE  I :    LESSON  VI 

Clear  Starching  (White  Apron  and  Handkerchiefs).  —  Clear 
starching  was  the  dainty  work  our  grandmothers  did  with 
fine  caps  and  kerchiefs.  The  starch  used  is  very  thin  and 
clear,  hence  the  name.  The  material  is  always  clapped 
until  nearly  dry,  then  ironed. 

Practice  Work.  —  Dampen  and  roll  up  colored  apron. 
Soak  white  apron  and  handkerchiefs  in  warm  suds.  Make 
thin  starch  with  one  level  tablespoonful  of  cornstarch  and 
one  quart  of  water,  boil  well,  and  add  a  very  little  bluing. 
To  find  out  that  the  starch  is  the  right  consistency,  dip  a 
piece  of  muslin  into  it  and  iron  it.  The  muslin  should 
seem  like  new,  never  be  stiff  or  rattle.  Squeeze  the  dirt 
out  of  the  muslin,  never  rub  it  on  the  board.  If  it  is  soiled, 
rub  it  very  gently  between  the  hands.  Boil,  rinse  well, 
blue,  and  put  the  muslin  into  the  thin  starch.  Wring  the 
muslin  between  cloths  but  do  not  twist  it,  shake  and  clap 
it  between  the  hands  until  dry  enough  to  iron.  Stretch  it 


304  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

into  shape  upon  the  board,  iron  first  the  strings,  next  the 
band,  then  the  hem,  and  lastly  from  hem  to  band.  Be  sure 
that  each  part  is  left  dry  and  free  from  wrinkles.  If  a  part 
dries  too  soon,  rub  it  lightly  with  a  damp  cloth  and  iron  it 
again.  Handkerchiefs  should  be  soaked  in  a  strong  suds 
by  themselves,  especially  if  the  owner  has  been  suffering 
from  a  cold.  They  should  be  well  boiled,  but  do  not  need 
starch  unless  they  are  very  thin ;  in  that  case  put  a  little 
starch  into  the  bluing- water.  This  makes  the  linen  seem 
like  new,  no  stiffer.  Usually  handkerchiefs  are  hung  in 
the  sun  to  bleach  and  dry,  then  they  are  sprinkled  and 
ironed  with  a  hot  iron  while  yet  quite  damp.  This  stiffens 
them.  Fine  embroidered  handkerchiefs  may  be  clear 
starched,  clapped  dry,  and  ironed  wrong  side  up  over 
several  thicknesses  of  flannel.  Fold  handkerchiefs  like  a 
napkin,  square  and  true. 

Iron  colored  apron  as  you  did  the  white  one,  and  hang  it 
to  air. 

COURSE  I :    LESSON  VII 

Wool  (Underwear) .  —  Under  the  microscope  we  see  that 
the  wool  fibre  is  composed  of  numbers  of  sheaths,  about 
three  thousand  to  the  inch.  The  outer  edge  of  each  sheath 
or  section  is  uneven  and  often  jagged.  These  little  points 
hook  into  each  other  when  the  fibres  are  slipped  by,  and 
when  they  would  slip  back,  to  their  original  position  the 
little  hooks  hold  fast  and  the  material  shrinks.  This 
change  of  position  of  the  fibres  is  caused  by  rubbing  or  by 
the  expansion  and  contraction  of  heat  and  cold.  Poor 
soaps  tend  to  thicken  flannels ;  and  if  soap  is  rubbed  into 
flannel,  it  is  hard  to  remove  without  shrinking  the  material. 
As  we  do  not  wish  to  have  flannels  shrink,  care  must  be 
taken  that  conditions  are  right. 

Practice  Work.  —  Make  soap  solution.     Shake  and  brush 


THE   LAUNDRY  305 

underwear  to  get  all  the  loose  dirt  out  of  it.  Make  a  suds 
in  two  or  more  tubs,  having  temperature  of  all  the  same  — 
about  100°  Fahrenheit,  the  temperature  of  the  body  —  that 
is,  so  that  the  hand  can  very  comfortably  be  held  in  the 
water.  Add  half  a  tablespoonful  of  ammonia  for  each  gallon 
of  water  and  put  underwear  a-soak  for  ten  minutes  or 
twenty.  Squeeze  the  dirt  out,  never  rub  it.  Put  the 
garment  through  a  wringer,  do  not  twist  or  wring  it  by 
hand.  Never  rub  soap  on  it.  Put  it  through  a  second  suds 
and  a  third  if  necessary.  If  a  soiled  part  does  not  yield  to 
this  treatment,  stretch  it  upon  some  smooth  surface  and 
with  a  soap  solution  on  a  soft  brush,  rub  it.  Rinse  the 
garment  in  several  waters  of  the  same  temperature  as  the 
first.  If  the  water  is  hard,  add  a  little  soap  solution  to 
soften  it.  Rinse  until  the  water  is  clear.  Stretch  the 
garment  and  hang  it  to  dry  where  it  is  neither  hot  nor 
cold.  Underwear  should  be  stretched  and  pulled  into 
shape  occasionally  while  drying  it,  but  it  does  not  need  to 
be  ironed. 

COURSE  I :    LESSON  VIII 

Silk  (Handkerchiefs  and  Ribbons).  —  Silk  under  the  micro- 
scope is  a  smoothly  continuous  fibre.  It  is  easily  injured 
by  alkalies  or  heat.  It  needs  the  same  treatment  in  the 
laundry  as  wool. 

Practice  Work.  —  Make  soap  solution.  Put  silk  a-soak 
in  warm  suds,  unless  the  color  comes  out  or  runs,  when  it 
should  be  washed  at  once.  Squeeze  the  dirt  out  of  it.  Put 
it  into  a  second  suds  like  the  first  and  then  through  several 
rinsing  waters.  Do  not  wring  or  twist  silk,  squeeze  the 
water  out  of  it,  or  let  it  drip  until  nearly  dry,  then  iron 
with  a  warm  iron  until  dry.  A  hot  iron  will  make  silk 
stiff.  If  the  silk  has  a  crape-like  weave,  take  the  hand- 
kerchief from  the  water  without  wringing,  straighten  it 


306  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

on  to  the  table  and  let  it  adhere  to  it  until  perfectly  dry. 
Do  not  iron  it.     Plain  silk  may  be  treated  in  the  same 

Ribbons  must  not  be  rubbed  or  squeezed  together  in  th( 
hand.  Strip  them  through  the  hand,  put  them  upon  th< 
table,  and  with  a  soft  brush  loosen  the  dirt,  brushing  always 
in  one  direction.  Binse  them  well,  and  while  still  wet 
straighten  them  upon  the  table,  let  them  adhere  and  remaii 
until  perfectly  dry. 


EIGHT  SUPPLEMENTARY  LESSONS 
COURSE  II :    LESSON  I 

Body  Linen  (Underskirt).  —  Talk  on  ironing,  folding,  am 
airing,  and  the  care  necessary  to  produce  good  results.  li 
conditions  are  right  and  pains  taken,  results  will  be  satis 
factory,  but  patience  and  practice  are  necessary  for  perfe 
work. 

Review  of  principles  of  washing. 

Practice  Work.  —  Put   underskirt   a-soak  in  warm  su( 
Make  starch.     Wash  garment,  gather  hem  of  skirt  in  th( 
hand,  and  rub  the  edge  of  it  on  to  the  board ;  if  any  pj 
is  still  soiled,  rub  soap  on  to  it  before  putting  it  into  th( 
boiler.     Boil,  rinse,  blue,  starch,  and   hang   skirt   to  dry. 
Put  only  the  hem  and  ruffles  into  the  starch,  rub  it  int 
them,  and  squeeze  out  the   extra   starch.      Skirts   shouh 
never  be  stiff  around  the  hips.      Hang  the  skirt  to  di 
wrong  side  out.     Attach  it  to  the  line  by  part  of  the  hei 
letting  the  rest  hang  so  that  the  air  can  get  in  and  dry  il 
quickly. 

COURSE  II :    LESSON  II 

Colored  Goods  (Gingham  Dress  and  Shirt  Waist).  —  Revie^ 
of  principles  underlying  laundering  colored  material. 


THE   LAUNDRY  307 

Practice  Work.  —  Dampen  and  roll  up  underskirt.  Make 
soap  solution.  Make  thin  starch.  In  a  warm,  weak  suds 
wash  first  the  garment  having  least  color,  or  the  one  you 
know  to  be  fast  in  color.  Possibly  the  second  garment  may 
be  washed  in  the  same  water  as  the  first,  but  it  would  be 
better  to  make  a  clean  suds  for  it.  If  the  hem  of  the  dress 
is  soiled,  it  may  be  gathered  in  the  hand  and  just  the  edges 
rubbed  on  the  board.  Best  results  are  obtained  with  least 
rubbing  when  fine  materials  and  delicate  colors  are  con- 
cerned. Rinse  quickly,  put  entire  garment  into  the  starch, 
put  through  the  wringer  to  get  out  the  extra  starch,  shake, 
and  hang  it  wrong  side  out  in  the  shade  to  dry.  Hang  it  so 
that  the  garment  will  be  nearly  in  the  shape  you  wish  it  to 
be  in  when  ironed,  but  do  not  allow  the  gathers  to  hang 
down  where  the  moisture  will  run  into  them,  or  the  sleeves 
to  get  out  of  shape.  Should  you  try  a  sample  of  material 
and  find  that  the  color  was  touched  by  soap,  try  washing 
it  in  bran  water,  using  it  just  as  you  would  soap-suds. 

Heat  irons,  get  out  skirt  board,  also  paper,  old  cloth,  wax, 
and  iron  stand.  Have  bowl  of  water  and  clean  cloth  con- 
venient. Put  paper  on  the  floor  under  the  board  to  keep  the 
skirt  clean.  Begin  with  the  ruffles,  taking  the  top  one  first, 
then  the  next.  Keep  the  unironed  part  covered  so  that  it 
will  not  dry  out.  After  the  ruffles  iron  the  band,  then  put 
the  board  inside  the  skirt  and  iron  one  breadth  or  section 
at  a  time,  taking  first  the  hem,  then  the  goods  under  the 
ruffles,  then  from  ruffle  to  band.  Move  the  skirt  and  take 
another  section  in  like  manner.  Leave  each  part  smooth 
and  dry  ;  if  the  material  dries  before  you  get  to  it,  moisten 
it  slightly  with  a  damp  cloth  just  before  ironing  it.  Hang 
the  skirt  to  air  ;  when  it  is  ready  to  put  away,  bring  the 
folds  in  the  middle  of  the  front  and  the  back  together,  then 
lay  each  side  back  upon  itself,  fan-like.  Make 
folds  until  little  but  the  trimming  shows.  .^^ 


308  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


COURSE  II :    LESSON  III 

Thick  Starching  (Rough-dry  Collars  and  Cuffs). 

Practice  Work.  —  Make  thick  starch,  set  it  in  water  to 
cool.  Dampen  and  roll  up  gingham  dress.  Stretch  and  tie 
a  damp  cloth  over  a  table  or  use  the  clean  uncovered  table. 
Put  the  bowl  of  starch  in  the  middle  of  it  and  have  several 
bowls  of  clean  water  with  clean  cloths  convenient.  Dip 
parts  to  be  starched  into  water  and  wring  very  dry,  that 
is  cuffs,  neckband,  and  plait  on  front  of  shirt  waist,  and 
rough-dried  cuffs  and  collars.  Stretch  and  straighten  the 
cuffs  and  collars,  lay  them  upon  the  table  wrong  side  up 
and  rub  starch  into  them  with  the  hand,  continue  rubbing 
until  the  starch  can  be  seen  on  the  right  side.  Be  sure 
that  the  edges  are  full  of  starch.  Clear  off  the  extra  starch 
with  a  clean  damp  cloth  and  hang  the  pieces  on  a  string  or 
attach  them  to  a  piece  of  cloth  and  place  them  before  the 
fire  to  dry.  Be  sure  that  each  piece  hangs  straight  and  in 
good  shape.  Treat  the  cuffs,  band,  and  plait  of  shirt  waist 
in  the  same  way.  Be  careful  not  to  get  starch  upon  the 
other  parts;  if  you  should,  clear  it  off  with  a  damp  cloth. 

Heat  irons  for  gingham  dress.  Iron  trimming  at  neck 
and  sleeves  first,  then  waist  and  sleeves,  and  lastly  the 
skirt,  the  part  that  would  muss  most  easily.  Whenever 
possible,  iron  gingham  or  prints  on  the  wrong  side;  they 
look  more  like  new.  Hang  the  garment  to  air  before 
putting  away. 

COURSE  II :    LESSON  IV 

Ironing  Thick  Starch  Work.  —  The  dampening  of  thick 
starch  work  must  be  done  three  or  four  hours  beforehand, 
by  children  if  possible,  otherwise  by  teachers.  Reserve  one 
or  two  articles  to  show  process  in  class. 

Practice  Work. — Never  sprinkle  thick  starch  work,  but 


THE   LAUNDRY  309 

dampen  it  by  contact  with  a  cloth  wrung  but  half  dry  from 
cold  water.  Fold  the  collars  and  cuffs  up  in  the  damp 
cloth.  Fold  a  damp  cloth  over  the  stiff  parts  of  the  shirt 
waist,  sprinkle  the  balance,  and  roll  or  fold  it  up  wrong  side 
out.  Cover  the  bundles  and  place  them  under  a  weight  if 
possible.  Heat  both  plain  irons  and  polishers,  and  know 
that  they  are  perfectly  clean.  Place  the  collar  or  cuff  upon 
the  table  wrong  side  up,  iron  it  lightly  with  the  polisher, 
first  one  side  and  then  the  other,  until  it  begins  to  stiffen ; 
then  on  the  right  side  apply  pressure  to  stiffen  and  polish ; 
work  quickly  and  bring  the  weight  of  the  body  to  bear  upon 
the  iron.  Polish  the  wrong  side  a  little,  but  leave  the  right 
side  smooth  and  shiny.  Do  one  piece  after  another  and  lay 
them  aside.  Use  a  damp  cloth  as  little  as  possible,  for  it 
takes  the  starch  out  and  leaves  blisters.  Leave  any  soiled 
spot  until  the  piece  is  dry,  then  rub  it  lightly  with  a  damp 
cloth.  When  ready  to  curl  collars  and  cuffs  take  a  common 
iron,  pass  it  over  the  piece  several  times  to  warm  it,  then 
with  it  wrong  side  up  grasp  the  edge  of  the  piece  with  the 
left  hand,  the  iron  close  upon  it ;  as  the  iron  is  drawn  back 
follow  it  closely  with  the  left  hand,  curling  the  piece  as 
you  go.  Work  from  both  ends  of  the  piece,  then  hold 
it  in  shape  in  the  hand  for  a  minute  and  stand  it  on  edge. 
Turnover  collars  must  be  ironed  straight  first,  folded  with 
the  hands,  and  pressed  with  the  iron  at  the  back.  If  the 
domestic  or  dull  finish  is  desired,  a  damp  cloth  brushed 
lightly  over  the  piece  will  remove  the  polish.  With  a 
polisher  iron  the  cuffs  of  the  shirt  waist,  the  part  of  the 
sleeve  next  the  cuff,  and  the  neckband.  With  a  common 
iron  take  the  yoke  first,  then  the  back,  plait  down  the  front, 
fronts,  and  sleeves.  Leave  no  creases  in  the  sleeves  or  any 
part.  Polish  the  plait  down  the  front,  and  hang  it  to  air. 

Instead  of  thick  starch,  raw  starch  is  often  used  for  col- 
lars, cuffs,  etc.     After  the  shirt  waist  has  been  sprinkled, 


310  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

the  cuffs,  neckband,  and  plait  may  be  dipped  into  the  raw 
starch,  the  starch  rubbed  into  the  parts,  the  waist  rolled  up, 
and  allowed  to  lie  for  half  an  hour.  Straighten  the  cuff, 
put  it  on  the  table  with  a  piece  of  muslin  over  it,  iron  until 
dry  both  sides,  pulling  the  muslin  off  frequently.  Dampen 
it  thoroughly  with  a  wet  cloth,  and  iron  again  in  the  same 
manner,  dampen  and  iron  a  third  time,  in  this  way  cooking 
the  starch  in  the  cuff  instead  of  out  of  it.  The  last  time 
take  off  the  muslin  and  polish  the  cuff.  Finish  the  band 
and  plait  in  the  same  way. 

COUKSE  II:   LESSON  V 

Clear  Starching  (Fine  Muslin  Sash  Curtains). — The  best 
clear  starch  work  is  done  with  rice  starch ;  it  is  very  smooth 
and  capable  of  great  dilution.  Infants'  dresses  may  be 
laundered  in  this  way,  also  fine  muslin  in  caps,  handker- 
chiefs, and  the  like.  Starch  must  be  made  beforehand. 

Practice  Work.  —  Make  soap  solution. 

Shake  and  brush  dust  out  of  curtains,  put  them  a-soak 
in  warm  suds.  Wash  them  gently,  always  squeezing  the 
dirt  out.  Wash  them  in  a  second  or  third  water.  If  fine 
muslin  must  be  rubbed,  put  a  piece  of  strong  muslin  under 
it  and  rub  both  together.  When  boiling  it,  tie  it  in  a  bag. 
A  quantity  of  absolutely  boiling  water  may  be  poured  over 
it,  but  boiling  is  considered  more  cleanly.  Rinse,  blue,  and 
put  the  pieces  into  thin  starch.  Lay  them  between  cloths, 
and  put  them  through  the  wringer.  Clap  each  between  the 
hands  until  it  is  dry  enough  to  iron,  straighten  it  upon  the 
board,  and  iron  smooth  and  dry,  taking  the  hems  first,  then 
ironing  with  the  warp. 

COURSE  II:   LESSON  VI 

Embroidered  Linen.  —  Keview  work  with  linen  and  silk. 
Embroidery  silks  are  fast  colors,  but  nevertheless  require 


THE  LAUNDRY  311 

careful  laundering.     They  should  be  washed  quickty,  and 
the  moisture  absorbed  by  an  old  dry  sheet. 

Practice  Work.  —  Make  soap  solution.  Wash  embroid- 
ered linen  quickly  in  a  warm  suds  to  which  a  teaspoonful 
of  borax  has  been  added.  Do  not  rub  the  linen  other  than 
between  the  hands  or  with  a  soft  brush.  Plunge  it  up  and 
down  in  the  water.  Einse  it  well  and  quickly,  changing  it 
from  one  fresh  water  to  another  without  wringing.  If  the 
color  runs,  let  the  cold  water  pour  through  the  linen,  carry- 
ing the  color  with  it.  Put  the  wet  linen  between  several 
thicknesses  of  old  cotton  cloth  which  will  absorb  the  mois- 
ture. Shake  the  piece  to  hasten  the  drying.  When  it  is 
perfectly  dry,  lay  it  face  downward  upon  several  thicknesses 
of  old  sheet.  With  a  wet  cloth  go  over  a  portion  of  the 
linen  at  a  time,  but  over  the  embroidery  quickly,  so  that  it 
will  not  be  moistened.  Straighten  the  material,  then  with 
a  hot  iron  and  firm  pressure  dry  and  stiffen  the  linen,  but 
do  not  steam  the  silk  or  it  will  lose  some  of  its  gloss.  Iron 
always  with  the  straight  of  the  goods,  never  bias.  Let  the 
piece  lie  upon  the  table  to  air,  do  not  fold  it,  but  roll  it  over 
stiff  paper.  Fringed  pieces  should  be  shaken  well  while 
wet.  When  dry,  brush  the  fringe  with  a  soft  brush  and 
trim  it. 

COURSE  II :   LESSON  VII 

Wool  (Embroidered  Flannel  or  Small  Shawl).  —  Eeview 
work  with  woollen  underwear. 

Practice  Work.  —  Make  soap  solution.  Follow  directions 
for  washing  wool  given  in  Lesson  VII,  Course  I.  If  the  color 
has  been  weakened  by  the  soap,  add  white  vinegar  to  the 
last  rinsing  water,  one  tablespoonful  to  one  gallon  of  water. 
Ammonia  will  strengthen  the  color  of  black  goods.  Hang 
the  goods  straight  by  the  edge,  and  when  nearly  dry  iron 
with  a  warm,  never  a  hot,  iron  until  perfectly  dry.  Press 


312  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

rather  than  shove  the  iron,  and  go  over  it  again  and  again. 
Do  not  fold  it,  but  hang  it  to  air.  If  the  flannel  is  embroid- 
ered, press  it  on  the  wrong  side  over  several  thicknesses  of 
flannel. 

All  woollen  dress  goods  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 
Use  plenty  of  water,  and  pass  the  goods  from  one  water  to 
another  without  wringing;  draw  the  material  through  the 
hands,  but  do  not  crease  it.  Take  it  dripping  from  the  last 
water,  hang  it  by  the  edge,  and  when  nearly  dry  iron  it. 
Cover  the  table  with  cotton  goods  about  the  color  of  the 
material  to  be  ironed,  and  place  the  goods  on  it  wrong  side 
up.  A  piece  of  colored  cambric  may  be  put  between  the 
goods  and  the  iron,  then  iron  until  it  is  quite  dry.  Have 
the  irons  barely  hissing  hot,  change  them  often,  but  do  not 
press  hard  enough  to  flatten  the  threads  of  the  material. 
After  the  material  has  aired,  roll  it,  never  fold  it. 

COURSE  II:   LESSON  VIII 

Laces,  Chiffon,  and  Velvet. — Eeal  laces  will  thicken 
slightly,  even  when  washed  with  the  greatest  of  care.  It  is 
best  to  keep  them  in  powdered  magnesia  when  not  in  use. 
The  magnesia  absorbs  the  oily  dirt,  especially  when  a  hot 
iron  is  applied  to  them,  the  lace  being  between  paper! 

Practice  Work.  —  Make  a  warm  suds  of  some  pure  soap. 
Add  one  teaspoonful  of  ammonia  to  each  quart  of  water. 
Let  the  lace  soak.  If  very  yellow,  let  the  lace  lie  in  soapy 
water  in  the  sun  for  several  days,  changing  the  water  daily. 
Wash  by  squeezing  the  dirt  out,  rinse  well  in  several  waters, 
put  into  a  weak  solution  of  gum  arabic,  made  by  pouring  one 
pint  of  boiling  water  over  gum  arabic  the  size  of  a  large 
pea.  This  will  give  the  lace  a  little  body,  but  will  not  per- 
ceptibly stiffen  it.  Pat  and  pull  it  into  shape,  and  pin  it 
down  upon  flannel.  Put  a  pin  in  every  point  and  pearl  of 
the  edge,  have  it  straight  and  true,  and  let  it  dry. 


THE   LAUNDRY  313 

Black  lace  may  be  washed  in  one  cup  of  strong  coffee  to 
which  has  been  added  one  tablespoonful  of  ammonia. 
Rinse  first  in  clear,  then  in  gum  arabic  water,  pat  and  pull 
into  shape  and  pin  it  down. 

Chiffon  or  veiling  must  be  washed  according  to  directions 
given  for  silk.  Squeeze  it  gently  from  water  to  water  so  as 
not  to  pull  the  threads.  Lay  it  between  cloths  to  absorb  the 
moisture,  and  when  nearly  dry  iron  with  a  cool  iron  on  the 
wrong  side.  When  soap  touches  the  color,  it  may  be  that 
bran  water  will  not.  Use  it  as  you  would  soapy  water. 

Velvets  must  be  brushed  first  to  get  the  dust  out,  then 
invert  a  hot  iron,  put  over  it  several  thicknesses  of  wet 
cloth  and  one  of  dry.  Draw  the  velvet  across  the  iron, 
brushing  the  pile  softly  against  the  nap.  The  steam  will 
raise  the  pile  and  take  out  the  creases. 


MAY 

HOUSEHOLD  PESTS  ;    HOUSE  CLEANING 
THE  COMMON  INSECT  PESTS  OF  THE  HOUSE 

BY  S.  MAKIA  ELLIOTT 

BOSTON,  MASS., 
JOINT  AUTHOR  WITH  MBS.  KICHARDS  OF  "  CHEMISTRY  OP  COOKING  AND  CLEANING 


CHAPTER  XIII 

HOUSEHOLD  PESTS 

BY  S.   MARIA  ELLIOTT 
GENERAL    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Entomology  for  Beginners,  Alpheus  S.  Packard  ;  Guide  to  Study  of 
Insects,  Alpheus  S.  Packard;  A  Text-Book  of  Entomology,  Alpheus 
S.  Packard ;  Half-Hours  with  Insects,  Alpheus  S.  Packard ;  Manual 
of  Invertebrated  Animals,  Huxley  ;  Forms  of  Animal  Life,  Rolleston  ; 
Our  Household  Insects,  Edw.  A.  Butler ;  Economic  Entomology, 
John  B.  Smith;  Origin  and  Metamorphoses  of  Insects,  Sir  John 
Lubbock ;  Structure  and  Life  History  of  the  Cockroach,  Miall  and 
Denny;  Romance  of  the  Insect  World,  L.  N.  Badenoch;  Directions 
for  collecting  and  preserving  Insects,  C.  V.  Riley ;  Insect  Life  (simple 
directions  for  collecting,  mounting,  and  breeding  of  insects),  John 
Henry  Comstock ;  A  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects,  John  Henry 
Comstock ;  Little  People,  Stella  Louise  Hook ;  Life  and  her  Children, 
Arabella  B.  Buckley ;  Tenants  of  an  Old  Farm,  Henry  C.  McCook, 
D.D. ;  Injurious  Insects  of  the  Farm  and  Garden,  Mary  Treat;  Farm 
and  Garden  Insects,  William  Somerville;  Insecta,  Alpheus  Hyatt  and 
J.  M.  Arms;  The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  Charles  Dickens;  Young 
Folks'  Pictures  and  Stories  of  Animals,  Mrs.  Sanborn  Tenney. 

Experiment  Stations'  Bulletins  (U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture) : 
The  Principal  Household  Insects  of  the  United  States,  L.  C.  Howard 
and  C.  L.  Marlatt ;  Insects  affecting  Domestic  Animals,  Herbert  Os- 
born;  Some  Little-Known  Insects  affecting  Stored  Vegetable  Prod- 
ucts, F.  H.  Chittenden.  Circulars :  The  True  Clothes  Moths,  Circular 
No.  36,  C.  L.  Marlatt ;  House  Flies,  Circular  No.  35,  L.  O.  Howard ; 
Mosquitoes  and  Fleas,  Circular  No.  13,  L.  O.  Howard.  Farmers'  Bul- 
letins :  Important  Insecticides,  No.  19,  C.  L.  Marlatt ;  Some  Insects 
Injurious  to  Stored  Grain,  No.  45,  F.  H.  Chittenden, 

317 


318  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

OUTLINE 

LESSON 

I.   STUDY  OF  A  TYPICAL  ADULT  INSECT. 
STUDY  OF  INDIRECT  METAMORPHOSIS. 

II.  AND  III.   INSECTS    INJURIOUS    OR    DISAGREEABLE    TO 

PERSONS. 

Lesson    II.   Mosquitoes  and  Flies. 
Lesson  III.   Bedbugs  and  Fleas. 

IV.  AND  V.   INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  FOOD  OR  FOOD  SUP- 
PLIES. 

Lesson  IV.   Cockroaches. 
Lesson     V.   Ants  and  Miscellaneous  Pests. 

VI.  AND  VII.   INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOTHING  OR  FABRICS. 
Lesson    VI.   Moths  and  Silver-fish. 
Lesson  VII.   Carpet-beetles  and  Crickets. 

Materials.  —  Specimens  of  the  insects  to  be  studied :  dry, 
alcoholic,  and  live  specimens  whenever  possible ;  live  speci- 
mens in  boxes  with  glass  side,  in  tumblers,  or  in  small 
bottles;  specimens  of  eggs,  egg  capsules  .of  cockroach, 
larvae,  pupae  if  possible ;  charts  and  diagrams ;  magnifying 
glasses;  needles,  insect  pins,  or  long  slender  "mourning" 
pins  for  separation  of  parts ;  small  pieces  of  cork  to  hold 
pins  and  mounted  specimens ;  bits  of  cardboard  or  thin  wood 
on  which  eggs  may  be  glued;  samples  of  cloth  eaten  by 
moths,  carpet-beetles,  silver  fish,  cockroaches,  etc. ;  samples 
of  materials  stained  or  damaged  by  bedbugs,  cockroaches, 
and  flies ;  ants'  larvae  and  pupae  from  house  or  field ;  "  lady 
birds  "  for  comparison  with  carpet-beetle. 

Methods. 

Aims.  — 1.   Eecognition  at  sight  of  adult,  pupa,  larva> 
egg-case  or  egg. 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS 


319 


(a)  Most  harmful  form  of  each  insect. 

(6)  The  favorite  foods  ;  breeding 
places ;  time  and  season  for 
breeding  or  devastation;  habits 
2.  Knowledge  of  -{  of  life. 

(c)  How  to  prevent  their  attacks. 

(d)  How  to  drive  away  or  kill  the  pests 

when  they  are  present. 

(e)  How  to  repair  the  damage  inflicted. 
Processes. 

1.  Examination  of  live  and  dead  specimens. 

2.  Examination  of  all  forms  of  each  insect,  whenever  these 

are  obtainable  or  widely  different  from  adult. 

3.  Study  of  pictures,  if  specimens  not  practicable. 

4.  Collection  and  rearing  —  to  familiarize  form,  number  of 

progeny,  and  rapidity  of  development. 

5.  Examination  of  articles  damaged  by  insects  —  note  char- 

acter of  such  damage,  whether  stain,  odor,  or  destruc- 
tion of  material.     Injury  or  disease  of  person. 

6.  Study  of  materials  and  apparatus  for  prevention  or  ex- 

termination.    Suggestions  for  other  apparatus  which 
might  be  used. 

7.  Study  of  applications  which  relieve  or  cure  injury  to 

person. 

8.  Cautions  for  use  of  materials. 

9.  Oral  and  written  descriptions.     Sketches  and  diagrams 

of  insects  and  apparatus. 

10.   Application  of  principles  at  homes  and  comparison  of 
results. 

Experiments.  —  Breed  each  form  studied.  Watch  meta- 
morphosis and  rapidity  of  development. 

The  making  of  parti-colored  larval  cases  by  moths,  from 
different  colored  cloths. 


320  HANDBOOK   OF  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Experiment  with  different  colored  flannels  and  different 
materials  to  find  favorite  food  for  moths  and  carpet-beetles. 

Try  effect  of  Mayweed  (Anthemis  cotula) ;  chamomile 
(Anthemis  arvensis)  or  (Anthemis  nobilis) ;  feverfew  (Chrys- 
anthemum parthenium)  and  the  common  white  daisy  (C. 
leucanthemum).  See  if  they  can  replace  the  imported  insect 
powder. 

NOTE.  —  Breeding  cages  may  be  made  out  of  wooden  boxes  with  a 
piece  of  glass  fitted  tightly  into  one  side,  or  arranged  to  slide  up  and 
down  or  from  right  to  left  in  a  groove.  This  should  have  a  layer  of 
moist  sand  in  the  bottom.  Most  insects  require  moisture. 

A  flower  pot,  with  moist  soil,  and  a  lamp  chimney  covered  with 
cheese  cloth  or  thin  muslin  will  answer  for  a  cage. 

For  mosquitoes  place  in  cage  a  small  dish  of  water.  For 
fleas  omit  the  moisture  until  need  of  it  is  shown.  Each 
insect  should  have  a  separate  breeding  place.  Furnish  each 
insect  with  the  food  he  chooses  when  inside  the  house. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. — Encourage  pupils  to  make 
collections  from  their  homes.  This  may  be  done  so  deli- 
cately that  their  sensitiveness  is  not  aroused.  They  do  this 
in  order  to  learn  how  to  prevent  and  remedy  in  the  future. 

Alcoholic  specimens  are  easier  to  manipulate  for  examina- 
tion of  certain  parts,  but  these  are  usually  changed  in  color ; 
and  hairy  portions  do  not  show  well.  Have  both  alcoholic 
and  dry  specimens. 

Keep  dry  specimens  for  examination  in  tin  boxes  or  glass 
bottles,  and  sprinkle  a  little  insect  powder  over  them. 

Especial  cautions  must  be  emphasized  concerning  the  use 
of  liquids  with  inflammable  vapors.  The  vapor  of  the 
naphthas  is  heavy  and  will  settle  toward  the  floor.  If  used 
in  large  quantity  on  carpets,  the  vapor  may  pass  through  the 
floor  and  collect  in  the  room  beneath,  as  in  the  cellar.  Ex- 
plosions have  occurred  in  cellars  thus  affected,  when  a  light 


_    HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  321 

was  brought  in.  Corrosive  sublimate  is  a  deadly  poison 
when  taken  internally.  Antidotes  for  poisons  should  be 
taught  in  emergency  lessons. 

Sulphurous  vapors  are  irritating  to  the  mucous  membranes 
of  persons,  bleach  moist  fabrics,  and  tarnish  many  metals. 
Be  careful  in  the  use  of  sulphur  for  purposes  of  fumigation 
—  danger  of  fire,  of  irritation,  tarnish,  and  bleaching. 

Turpentine  vapor  takes  longer  than  naphtha  to  evaporate, 
and  will  be  detected  from  furniture  in  a  warm  room  for 
some  time.  It  is  an  irritant  to  the  skin  of  certain  persons. 

Be  careful  that  live  specimens  do  not  escape.  Examine 
in  small  vials  or  small  boxes,  where  they  can  be  controlled. 

LESSOX  I 

Materials.  —  Typical  insects  of  large  size.  The  locust  or 
"  grasshopper,"  or  the  large  cockroach  will  show  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  insects  with  direct  metamorphosis. 

The  butterflies  or  moths  furnish  examples  of  insects 
giving  indirect  metamorphosis. 

Magnifying  glasses. 

German  insect  pins  or  long,  slender  "  mourning  "  pins  or 
needles. 

Flowers  of  Pyrethrum  or  related  species. 

Samples  of  pure  insect  powder. 

Diagrams  and  charts  for  illustration  of  parts  and  related 
forms. 

General  Information  or  Introduction.  —  The  healthy  house 
is  the  clean  house.  The  clean  house  must  stand  upon  clean 
foundations,  amid  clean  surroundings.  It  must  be  built  of 
clean  materials,  supplied  with  clean  air,  clean  water,  clean 
food,  and  clean  furnishings.  All  of  these  must  then  be 
kept  clean  in  order  that  the  clean  occupants  may  reach  that 
height  of  sanitary  cleanness  which  is  health.  If  all  houses 


322  HANDBOOK   OF    DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

at  all  times  could  show  a  bill  of  health  with  the  above  items, 
there  would  be  no  need  of  any  study  of  household  pests. 

It  is  because  any  house  may  sometimes  depart  from  the 
standard  that  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  forms,  life  history, 
and  habits  of  insects  which  invade  the  house,  and  the  pre- 
ventive and  remedial  methods  which  govern  the  protection 
of  the  household  and  household  property.  Only  a  few 
species  out  of  the  many  which  the  insect  world  furnishes 
come  under  the  head  of  Household  Pests. 

The  student  of  domestic  science  should  seek  all  possible 
information  concerning  insect  life  in  general,  besides  that 
special  knowledge  which  applies  to  the  few  which  are  likely 
to  be  met  with  as  foes. 

The  life  history  of  insects  is  especially  interesting  because 
the  periods  of  growth  or  metamorphoses  are  often  more 
apparent  than  in  the  higher  animals  and  man.  Four  dis- 
tinct stages  appear  —  egg,  larva,  pupa,  imago. 

When  between  the  egg  and  the  adult  there  is  a  stage 
where  no  feeding  and  no  movement  from  place  to  place 
goes  on,  the  changes  or  the  metamorphosis  are  said  to  be 
"  indirect "  ;  where  between  egg  and  adult  there  is  no  quies- 
cent stage,  the  metamorphosis  is  "direct"  Some  writers 
still  retain  the  older  terms  "  complete  "  for  "  direct " ;  "  in- 
complete "  for  "  indirect." 

The  egg  is  always  minute,  sometimes  microscopic;  it 
gives  birth  to  the  larva,  commonly  known  by  one  of  several 
names,  grub,  worm,  maggot,  caterpillar,  wriggler,  etc.  The 
larva  may  or  may  not  moult  once  or  several  times  before 
passing  into  the  next  stage,  the  quiescent  or  pupal  form. 
Each  moult  means  an  increase  in  size,  for  when  the  little 
body  gets  too  big  for  its  skin,  a  new,  soft,  and  flexible  skin 
has  already  formed  beneath  the  old.  The  old  skin  is  rup- 
tured, and  the  larva  emerges.  Man  has  to  remove  his  old 
clothes  and  then  put  on  the  new.  Insects  come  out  of  their 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  323 

old  clothes  already  dressed  in  the  new  suit,  perfectly  fitted 
externally  and  internally. 

After  a  while,  the  exact  length  of  time  governed  largely 
by  conditions  of  food  and  warmth,  the  larva  encloses  itself 
in  a  case  or  sac  made  either  from  new  materials  foreign  to 
the  body,  or  of  the  dried  and  hardened  skin  of  the  larva 
itself. 

This  is  the  pupa,  called  chrysalis  in  the  butterfly  and 
nymph  in  the  honey-bee.  No  food  is  now  taken,  and  there 
is  no  movement  ex/cept  slight  muscular  contractions  when 
the  pupa  is  disturbed. 

At  la/dt  the  pupal  period  is  past,  and  out  from  the  case 
comes,  the  imago  or  full-growi),  perfect  insect,  —  at  first  weak 
and  trembling,  but  rapidly  becoming  used  to  its  new  body 
and.  new  conditions  of  life. 

-In  cases  of  direct  metamorphosis  the  young  differ  veryj 
little  from  the  adult  except  in  size,  tke  changes  being  so 
gradual  that  to  the  casual  observer  they  are  unnoticed. 
The  most  obvious  difference  in  some  cases  is  the  presence 
of  wings  in  the  pupa  and  imago  where  they  were  a^isent  in 
ttif>  larva.  All  stages  feed.  Many  adults  live  only  a  few 
days  after  emerging  from  the  pupa.  They  reproduce  their 
kind  and  die.  The  time  intervening  between  the  egg  and 
adult  stages  varies  from  a  few  days  with  many  insects  to 
seventeen  years  with  the  Cicada. 

Insects  have  bodies  made  of  three  segments,  which  may 
be  so  nearly  united  that  they  are  distinguished  with  diffi- 
culty, or  they  may  be  plainly  shown  as  in  the  wasps  and 
ants.  These  three  segments  are  again  divided  into  rings, 
the  normal  number  being  thirteen.  It  is  seldom  that  this 
number  can  readily  be  determined  because  two  or  more  are 
often  consolidated. 

The  first  segment,  or  the  head,  bears  the  usual  appendages, 
eyes,  antennae,  and  mouth  parts ;  the  middle,  or  thorax,  bears 


324  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

the  legs  and  wings,  if  the  latter  are  present;  the  last,  or 
abdomen,  may  or  may  not  bear  certain  appendages  for  pro- 
tection, for  aids  in  locomotion  or  for  digging. 

The  typical  insect  has  three  pairs  of  legs  and  two  pairs 
of  wings.  Both  pairs  of  wings  may  be  membranous  and 
flexible,  or  the  upper  or  front  pair  hardened  into  wing 
covers  as  in  the  beetles. 

The  segments  are  united  by  flexible  joints  which  aid 
greatly  in  the  rapid  movements  characteristic  of  most 
insects. 

Not  alone  the  body,  but  also  tne  appendages"  ftre  ringed  or 
jointed.  The  entire  structure  f,hows  admirable  adaptability 
to  the  conditions  under  which  insect  life  exists. 

Insects  take  in  air  through ,  small  slits  or  holes,  called 
spiracles,  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen.  Anything  which 
partly  or  completely  fills  these  spiracles  stops  respiration 
and  stupefies  or  sm&chers  the  insect.  Hence  the  effect  of 
powders,  oil,  ete. 

The  antennae,  preeminently,  are  organs  of  touch  and  ii- 
many  cases  are  extremely  long  and  sensitive,  enabling  their 
possessors  to  be  warned  of  impending  danger  or  disagree- 
able conditions  long  before  actual  harm  is  done.  Some 
insects  show  an  acute  sense  of  smell,  but  just  what  parts 
respond  to  this  stimulus  is  not  known. 

The  organs  of  hearing  are  sometimes  at  the  bases  of  the 
antennae,  and  sometimes  on  the  wings.  Some  insects  show 
extreme  sensibility  to  sound. 

The  mouth  parts  of  insects  vary  in  number  and  show 
wonderful  modifications  in  structure  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  food  upon  which  the  insect  lives  in  each  stage 
of  larva  or  adult.  In  the  former,  they  are  used  chiefly  like 
shears  for  cutting  or  biting  and  are  hard  and  horny  ;  in  the 
latter  they  may  be  adapted  for  the  cutting  or  biting  of  solids, 
or  for  the  sucking  or  lapping  of  liquids.  Then  there  are 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  325 

parts  which  help  to  catch,  to  kill,  and  to  hold  the  food. 
Some  carnivorous  insects  secrete  fluids  which  stun,  kill,  or 
partially  dissolve  the  victim  before  they  feed  upon  it. 

Most  of  the  insects  which  infest  the  household  may  be 
reared  in  captivity  and  their  metamorphoses  watched  and 
studied.  Such  study  is  intensely  interesting  even  in  those 
cases  where  the  presence  of  the  free  insect  arouses  only  dis- 
gust and  murderous  desire. 

Probably  all  insects  were  originally  out-door  forms  and 
the  few  have  become  in-door  pests  because  of  the  favorable 
conditions  for  protection  and  food  there  offered.  Their 
food  was  primarily  raw  vegetable  juices,  but  some  have 
already  found  an  entire  animal  diet  more  to  their  taste, 
while  others  are  pleased  with  variety  in  their  bill  of  fare, 
taking  a  taste  of  blood  or  of  cooked  foods  if  occasion  serves. 
A  few,  like  the  bedbug  and  flea,  are  such  lovers  of  blood 
that  they  have  well-nigh  become  parasites  on  man  or  the 
warm-blooded  animals. 

"In  the  case  of  the  clothes  moths,  the  larvae  of  all  of 
which  can,  in  case  of  necessity,  still  subsist  on  almost  any 
dry  animal  matter,  their  early  association  with  man  was 
probably  4n  the  role  of  scavengers,  and  in  prehistoric  times 
they  probably  fed  on  waste  animal  material  about  human 
habitations  and  on  fur  garments.  The  fondness  they  exhibit 
nowadays  for  tailor-made  suits  and  expensive  products  of  the 
loom  is  simply  an  illustration  of  their  ability  to  keep  pace 
with  man  in  his  development  in  the  matter  of  clothing  from 
the  skin  garments  of  savagery  to  the  artistic  products  of  the 
modern  tailor  and  dressmaker,"  writes  C.  L.  Marlatt  in 
"The  Principal  Household  Insects  of  the  United  States." 

Insect  Powder.  —  Insect  powder,  which  is  so  commonly 
used  both  for  the  prevention  and  extermination  of  insect 
pests,  is  made  from  several  species  of  Pyrethrum  or  Chrysan- 
themum the  G.  roseum  furnishing  the  powder  known  as 


326  HANDBOOK   OP   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Persian  insect  powder.  Other  names  for  the  same  powder 
or  for  the  same  use  are  Dalniation  and  buhach.  The  Cali- 
fornian  buhach  is  especially  effective.  The  powder  is  made 
of  the  pulverized  flower  heads.  It  is  not  poisonous  to 
animal  life  except  in  the  case  of  insects.  Adulteration  is 
easy  and  common,  as  there  are  many  related  species  which 
may  be  used  without  detection  by  the  casual  observer  and 
which  are  less  expensive.  The  pure  powder  should  be  used, 
for  much  less  is  required. 

The  Pyrethrum  may  be  grown  in  most  climates  favorable 
to  the  ordinary  camomile  plants,  and  the  country  housewife 
may  well  experiment  with  her  mayweed  and  feverweed  to 
see  if  they  will  not  assist  her  in  ridding  the  house  of 
troublesome  insects. 

LESSON  II 
Flies  and  Mosquitoes 

Materials. — Insect  powder,  pennyroyal  herb  and  oil, 
quassia  chips,  Chinese  incense  sticks,  molasses,  black  pepper, 
egg,  cooking  soda,  aqua  ammonia,  borax,  salt,  traps  (home- 
made and  patented),  fly-drivers  (home-made  and  patented), 
whisk  broom,  bits  of  meat  "  blown  "  by  flies,  liquids  infested 
with  fly  "  maggots  "  or  pupae,  atomizer,  plates. 

Flies 

Diptera  —  Muscidae — Musca  Domestica  and  Others Flies  are 

a  disagreeable,  irritating  pest  to  persons,  and  by  their  eggs 
they  contaminate  food  supplies.  Worst  of  all,  their  feet  are 
admirably  adapted  for  picking  up  disease  germs,  which  may 
be  carried,  here  as  well  as  on  the  proboscis,  from  person  to 
person,  or  from  putrefying  matter  to  person  or  food.  This 
is  true  especially  in  cases  of  typhoid  fever,  where,  as  is 
often  the  case,  the  faeces,  not  disinfected,  are  thrown  into 


HOUSEHOLD  PESTS  327 

the  common  privy,  or  allowed  to  stand  uncovered.  This 
last  is  the  chief  reason  why  flies  should  be  kept  out  of  the 
house.  Especially  is  there  great  danger  of  such  carriage  of 
contagion,  where  there  are  babies,  as  they  are  unable  to 
protect  themselves,  and  their  delicate  membranes  of  eyes, 
nostrils,  and  lips  are  more  sensitive  than  those  of  adults. 

Many  cases  are  on  record  where  the  germs  of  consumption 
have  been  found  in  the  bodies  and  in  the  droppings  of  flies, 
in  rooms  occupied  by  consumptive  persons. 

It  is  true  that  flies  are  scavengers,  and  it  is  their  work  to 
aid  in  ridding  the  world  of  filth ;  but  we  do  not  wish  them  to 
deposit  the  results  of  their  scavenging  upon  ourselves  or 
upon  our  food. 

There  are  a  number  of  species  which  may  be  found  in 
houses,  but  the  most  abundant  is  the  true  house  fly,  which 
cannot  bite  or  pierce  the  flesh,  its  mouth  parts  being  adapted 
simply  for  lapping  liquids.  Some  of  the  stable  flies,  however, 
have  mouth  parts  which  can  pierce  the  skin,  and  they  often 
come  into  the  house.  It  is  not  necessary  to  distinguish 
between  the  species,  as  all  should  be  kept  out,  if  comfort, 
economy,  and  health  are  to  be  maintained. 

The  metamorphosis  is  indirect.  The  adults  do  not  need 
description,  although  they  well  repay  close  observation  and 
study,  especially  the  head  and  feet.  The  favorite  breed- 
ing place  is  horse  manure,  but  the  female  will  lay  her  eggs 
in  all  kinds  of  manure,  as  well  as  in  any  moist  decaying 
matter  —  meat,  fruit,  garbage  of  all  kinds.  One  dirty 
stable  may  furnish  flies  to  a  whole  neighborhood.  Dirty 
streets,  neglected  back  yards,  uncovered  garbage  barrels, 
invite  the  parent  fly  to  deposit  there  her  eggs.  Each 
mother  fly  may  lay  over  a  hundred  eggs  at  one  time,  and 
these  pass  through  their  four  stages  from  egg  to  adult  in 
from  ten  to  fourteen  days.  The  enormous  numbers  of  flies 
are  thus  easily  accounted  for. 


328  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

The  larva  is  a  long,  segmented  form,  larger  at  the  anal 
end,  but  showing  no  head  except  the  small  antennae.  Its 
mouth  parts  are  hooks  which  aid  in  movement  as  well  as  in 
eating. 

The  adults  remain  torpid  during  the  cold  weather,  reap- 
pearing in  May  or  June,  but  usually  not  laying  their  eggs 
until  August.  Thus  the  greatest  danger  to  food  supplies 
which  invite  egg-laying  is  in  this  month. 

With  this  insect,  prevention  is  preeminently  important. 
In  cities  the  pest  may  be  greatly  diminished  by  strict  atten- 
tion to  stable,  street,  and  back-yard  cleanness.  The  prompt 
collection  of  horse  droppings  from  the  street  or  stable;  their 
storage  in  tightly  covered  receptacles,  or  the  covering  of 
them  with  lime  when  exposed ;  the  burning  of  garbage ; 
cleanness  of  yards,  sheds,  etc. ;  food  materials  kept  well 
covered  that  no  eggs  may  be  deposited ;  no  wet  places  left  to 
furnish  them  food,  —  all  these  are  absolutely  necessary 
before  diminution  in  numbers  can  be  hoped  for. 

Another  preventive  measure  is  early  and  complete  screen- 
ing of  doors,  windows,  and  chimneys  even,  for  in  many 
localities  and  in  houses  where  there  are  open  fire-places 
the  chimneys  furnish  comfortable  shelters  from  wind  and 
rain,  while  the  smell  of  food  draws  the  flies  down  into  the 
house. 

The  common  objection  of  the  "men  folks"  that  screens 
keep  flies  in  rather  than  out  is  partly  true.  This  may  be 
overcome  by  making  a  few  conical  holes  near  the  top  of  the 
screens,  from  the  inside.  These  should  be  of  such  shape  as 
would  be  made  by  a  sharpened  lead  pencil,  the  large  end 
opening  into  the  room  inviting  the  flies  to  walk  in;  the 
small  end  allowing  them  to  squeeze  through  into  the  sun- 
shine. They  are  seldom  able  to  return  in  reverse  order. 
Screens,  too,  so  lessen  the  air  and  light  supply  and  impair 
pleasant  views,  that  their  use  is  a  doubtful  blessing. 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  329 

Flies  are  usually  day-fliers,  and  as  they  prefer  light  and 
revel  in  sunshine,  rooms  should  be  occasionally  darkened 
with  only  a  small  aperture  into  the  open  air  or  into  a 
lighter  room.  The  flies  will  seek  the  light  or  they  may  be 
forcibly  encouraged  to  leave.  Perhaps  there  is  no  better 
fly-driver  than  the  many  long,  narrow  strips  of  newspaper 
tied  to  a  flexible  stick.  These  switch  and  rustle  so  angrily 
that  the  flies  are  frightened  by  both  noise  and  movement, 
and  seek  to  escape  into  the  light. 

Various  traps,  from  the  tumbler  of  soap-suds  covered  with 
a  perforated  paper  or  card,  the  underside  smeared  with 
molasses  as  a  bait,  to  the  more  elaborate  varieties  of  wire 
gau2e  and  other  devices,  are  effective  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree.  "  Fly-papers  "  may  be  put  under  the  head  of  traps. 
The  ordinary  whisk  broom  may  be  effectual  to  kill  indi- 
vidual flies  when  they  would  escape  from  a  smooth  surface. 
It  acts  like  the  wire  "  spatter." 

Certain  mixtures  are  recommended  to  attract,  to  stupefy, 
or  to  poison  them ;  to  insure  death  the  flies  should  afterward 
be  collected  and  burned.  Two  of  these  are  given.  Beat 
together  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  a  tablespoonful  of  molasses,  and 
the  same  of  finely  ground  black  pepper ;  spread  thin. 

Boil  \  ounce  quassia  chips  in  1  pint  water;  mix  with 
this  4  ounces  molasses;  place  in  shallow  plates. 

Preventive  Measures.  —  Strict  and  thorough  care  of  stables 
and  streets,  cleanness  in  house  and  surrounding,  absence  or 
disinfection  of  breeding-places,  early  and  thorough  screening. 

Remedies.  —  Drive  out  into  light;  darkened  rooms  with 
small  outlet  into  the  light;  traps,  stupefying  mixtures. 

Mosquitoes 

Diptera  Culicidae — Culex  pungens  and  Others.  —  The  mos- 
quito is  by  some  persons  considered  to  be  a  pleasing 


330  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

musician,  by  others  a  torment,  and  by  others  still  an 
enemy  armed  with  no  mean  weapons. 

The  adult  is  too  common  an  insect  to  need  description. 
Its  habits,  however,  are  unknown  to  many,  while  its  larval 
and  pupal  forms  are  seldom  seen  or  recognized  as  such  by 
any  but  the  student.  The  adult  mosquito  is  a  land  insect, 
feeding  only  upon  liquid  food  which  it  sucks  up  through  its 
proboscis  or  tubular  tongue.  It  lays  its  eggs,  however,  upon 
the  surface  of  water,  because  its  larva  and  pupa  live  only 
in  water.  They  require  atmospheric  oxygen  for  respiration. 
This  they  get  just  at  the  surface  of  their  watery  home,  and 
take  it  in  through  a  special  tube  called  a  respiratory  siphon. 
The  long  slender  abdomen  is  so  supple  and  the  movements 
so  jerky  that  the  mosquito  larvae  are  familiarly  called 
"  wrigglers/7 

The  natural  food  of  mosquitoes  is  no  doubt  the  juices  of 
plants,  and  blood  only  a  luxury ;  indeed,  the  male  often  lives 
his  little  span  of  life  without  any  nourishment,  and  the 
female  does  not  necessarily  take  human  or  other  warm  blood 
at  any  time. 

Although  there  are  upwards  of  thirty  species  recorded  in 
the  United  States,  to  most  persons  a  mosquito  is  a  mosquito, 
and  scientific  differences  have  no  interest. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  eggs  are  laid  early  in  the  morning 
before  daylight.  They  are  fastened  together  in  masses  of 
various  shapes,  in  rows,  with  three  to  forty  eggs  in  a  row, 
so  that  in  one  egg  mass  there  may  be  over  four  hundred 
eggs.  The  individual  eggs  are  minute,  a  little  broader  at 
the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  whitish  in  color  except  at  the 
tip,  where  they  are  a  dark  gray-brown. 

The  changes  from  egg  to  adult  nlay  be  passed  through  in 
ten  days  under  favorable  conditions,  but  in  cold  weather 
or  cold  places  this  time  may  be  greatly  prolonged.  The 
eggs,  however,  often  hatch  in  less  than  sixteen  hours. 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  331 

The  larvae  leave  the  eggs  from  the  under  side,  and  are  thus 
in  the  water  immediately,  where  they  live  until  the  adult 
stage. 

These  two  facts  in  the  life  history  of  Culex  lead  us  to  the 
most  important  preventive  measures.  Because  they  hatch 
so  quickly,  and  in  such  numbers,  great  precaution  must  be 
taken  to  promptly  abolish  all  favorable  breeding  places. 
Because  they  live  in  the  water  and  still  must  breathe  our 
atmosphere  just  at  the  surface,  if  we  can  make  it  impossible 
for  them  to  get  this  air  we  shall  kill  the  larvae.  If  we  can 
prevent  their  breeding  or  kill  the  larvae,  we  shall  rid  our- 
selves of  the  adult  pest. 

Any  quiet  stretch  of  water  may  invite  the  mother  insect 
to  deposit  her  eggs.  An  uncovered  tub  of  rainwater,  a 
forgotten  pail  of  water  left  out-of-doors  over  night,  a  stag- 
nant dooryard  or  barnyard  pool,  a  water  tank,  a  sink  drain 
emptying  upon  saturated  ground,  or  the  privy  vault  where 
liquid  sewage  stands,  —  all  of  these  and  similar  places,  to 
say  nothing  of  swamps  and  brackish  marshes,  still  ponds  or 
lakes,  may  become  stocked  with  mosquito  larvae.  They 
lay  their  eggs  only  on  still  water.  Running  water  or  tanks 
which  are  kept  agitated  by  any  means  are  exempt  from 
mosquitoes. 

Complete  drainage  and  care  that  no  available  breeding 
place  be  carelessly  left  about  the  house  or  in  the  vicinity 
is  of  greatest  importance. 

Breeding  places  that  cannot  be  removed  should  have  their 
surfaces  covered  with  kerosene.  This  not  only  catches  the 
adult  females  as  they  attempt  to  lay  their  eggs  and  "before 
the  eggs  are  laid,"  but  it  prevents  the  larvae  from  obtaining 
air,  and,  therefore,  they  die  in  the  water.  For  ponds  and 
lakes  where  kerosene  would  be  objectionable,  certain  fish 
may  be  introduced,  which  will  feed  upon  the  larvae.  About 
one  ounce  of  kerosene  to  every  fifteen  square  feet  of  water 


332  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

surface,  with  monthly  renewals,  has  been  found  to  be  effi- 
cient.1 It  is  far  easier  to  keep  mosquitoes  out  of  the  house 
than  to  kill  them  after  they  are  inside.  Complete  screening 
of  windows,  doors,  and  beds  comes  first  among  remedial 
measures.  Strong  odors  are  disagreeable  to  them,  so  that 
burning  incense  sticks,  insect  powder,  or  other  fragrant 
smudges  may  clear  a  room  of  the  pest.  The  herb  penny- 
royal, Hedeoma,  either  fresh  or  dry,  or  the  oil  of  the  same, 
is  also  effectual. 

The  adults  often  hibernate  during  the  cold  months  in 
cellars  or  outbuildings.  Sometimes  they  are  found  on  ceil- 
ings in  such  quantities  that  they  may  be  caught  by  placing 
under  them  cups  of  kerosene,  and  scraping  them  into  the 
oil  or  by  holding  a  lamp  under  them. 

Some  persons  seem  to  be  immune  to  the  "sting"  or  "bite  " 
of  mosquitoes,  objecting  only  to  their  monotonous  hum ;  others 
feel  a  momentary  irritation  from  the  puncture ;  while  others 
suffer  pain  and  inflammation.  The  irritation  may  be  allayed 
and  inflammation  reduced  by  applications  of  cooking  soda, 
borax,  ammonia  water,  moist  salt,  and  any  cooling  lotion. 

Preventive  Methods.  —  Breeding  places  abolished,  breed- 
ing places  covered  with  kerosene,  agitation  of  water,  fish  in 
bodies  of  water. 

Remedies.  —  Screens,  smudges,  strong  odors. 

LESSON  III 
Bedbugs  and  Fleas 

Apparatus.  —  Kerdsene,  naphtha,  corrosive  sublimate  tab- 
lets, hot  water,  insect  powder,  varnish,  feathers,  bulb 
syringe,  spring-bottom  oil  can ;  pieces  of  wood  and  bedding 
showing  stains  from  mouth  secretions  and  excrement. 

1  "The  Principal  Household  Insects  of  the  United  States."  — L.  O. 
HOWARD  AND  C.  L.  MARLATT,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Div.  of 
Entomology,  Bull.  4. 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  333 

Bedbugs 
Hemiptera  —  Cimicidae  —  Cimex  lectularius. 

"Nature  never  loses  a  crack  or  a  crevice,  mind  you,  or  a  joint  in  a 
tavern  bedstead,  but  she  always  has  one  of  her  flat-plattern  live  time- 
keepers to  slide  into  it."  —  OLIVER  WENDELL  HOLMES. 

Since  the  above  sentence  was  written  by  our  genial  Dr. 
Holmes  the  metal  bedstead  has  largely  superseded  the 
wooden  one  with  its  many  cracks  and  crevices.  Yet  "  No 
bedstead  has  yet  been  made  which  does  not  afford  it 
shelter,"  says  John  B.  Smith  in  his  "Economic  Entomol- 
ogy," as  late  as  1896. 

Its  presence  in  a  country  house  may  be  considered  a  sign 
of  filth  and  neglect,  but  it  cannot  be  thus  construed  in  a 
city  house.  Yet,  although  its  occasional  appearance  in  the 
latter  may  be  excusable,  its  continuance  means  inexcusable, 
carelessness,  and  should  be  thought  a  disgrace;  for,  when 
once  seen  and  known,  watchfulness  and  proper  care  will 
exterminate  it.  No  easy  methods,  however,  will  avail. 
The  housewife  must  fight  for  her  victory. 

Conditions  in  cities  favor  the  introduction  of  this  human 
parasite  into  the  houses.  It  may  be  brought  in  on  clothing 
out  of  crowded  street  or  steam  cars;  it  is  apt  to  get  into 
trunks  and  bags  during  travels ;  new  furniture  even  may  be 
infested ;  or  the  bug  may  migrate  from  some  neighboring 
house.  They  have  been  seen  to  drop  from  the  holes  of  cane- 
seated  chairs.  When  a  house  is  vacant  or  closed  for  a  long 
time,  and  the  food  supply  is  thereby  unfavorable  in  kind  or 
quantity,  they  often  travel  along  walls,  water-pipes,  roof- 
gutters,  etc.  Apartments  are  often  suddenly  or  continually 
overrun  from  such  sources. 

However  disgusting  the  subject  may  be,  it  is  wisdom  to 
know  the  possible,  and  how  to  remedy  what  we  may  not  be 
able  to  prevent. 


334  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

The  bedbug,  unlike  most  insect  pests,  has  been  associated 
with  man  since  the  earliest  times  on  record.  The  ancient 
peoples  of  Asia,  the  Romans,  and  other  nations  were  familiar 
with  it  and  its  habits.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  States 
it  is  known  as  the  "  chinch "  bug,  although  this  name  be- 
longs rather  to  an  allied  species  which  does  not  trouble  the 
housewife.  Other  names  are  descriptive,  as  "red  coats," 
"  chintzes,"  etc.  It  probably,  like  the  real  "  chinch ,"  which 
feeds  upon  vegetable  juices,  was  once  a  strict  vegetarian. 
Like  other  insects  which  have  long  lived  a  parasitic  life,  it 
has  almost  lost  its  wings,  for  which  man  should  be  thankful. 
It  is  much  easier  to  fight  a  foe  that  must  depend  upon  legs 
rather  than  wings  to  effect  an  escape. 

The  metamorphosis  is  direct,  the  adult  differing  from  the 
young  chiefly  in  color  and  size. 

The  body  is  mostly  abdomen,  which,  unless  distended  with 
blood,  is  flat  and  scarcely  thicker  than  a  sheet  of  thin  paper, 
so  that  there  is  seldom  a  space  so  narrow4hat  it  cannot  be 
invaded  by  a  bedbug.  Its  head  is  set  in  a  hollow  and  pro- 
tected by  extended  flaps.  The  antennae  are  jointed  and 
hairy  on  both  sides.  It  has  the  characteristic  "  buggy  "  odor, 
which  aids  in  the  detection  of  its  whereabouts.  The  adults 
are  reddish  brown  tinged  with  black ;  the  young,  a  yellow- 
white  changing  into  brown. 

The  eggs  are  minute,  white,  oval  bodies  with  a  low  rim 
around  one  end.  This  end  acts  as  a  lid,  and  is  pushed  off 
by  the  escaping  larva. 

Cimex  is  extremely  prolific,  laying  several  batches  of  eggs 
during  one  season,  and  the  eggs  hatch  usually  in  about  a 
week.  With  such  a  pest  and  such  progeny  "  eternal  vigi- 
lance is,"  indeed,  "  the  price  of  liberty  "  to  the  housewife. 

Like  the  cockroach,  the  bedbug  abhors  light  and  conceals 
itself  during  the  daytime.  It  naturally  hibernates  during 
the  cold  months,  beginning  active  life  with  the  return  of 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  335 

warm  weather ;  yet  in  warm  city  houses  it  may  remain  active 
all  winter.  April  is  perhaps  the  month  common  to  most 
parts  of  our  country  for  the  beginning  of  their  breeding 
season. 

If  blood  is  wanting,  the  bedbug  may  feast  upon  the 
paste  on  papered  walls,  and  picture  moulding  often  forms 
its  quiet,  dry,  undisturbed  breeding  place.  This  shows  that 
it  can  live  on  very  scanty  food,  when  the  dust  collected  in 
cracks  and  crevices  is  sufficiently  moist  for  its  needs.  In- 
deed, specimens  have  been  kept  in  sealed  vials  in  laborato- 
ries for  more  than  a  year. 

The  adult  is  furnished  with  a  fleshy  underlip  or  beak, 
which  holds  four  hard  and  sharp  filaments  called  setae. 
These  puncture  the  skin  and  pierce  the  flesh  by  a  sawlike 
movement  while  passing  over  each  other.  The  beak  is 
pressed  closely  to  the  wound,  and  through  it  the  blood  is 
drawn.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  these  mouth  parts  might 
carry  contagion  from  man  to  man,  or  from  tainted  flesh  to 
man. 

Some  persons  are  unaffected  by  the  bite  of  this  insect,  not 
feeling  the  puncture  nor  knowing  any  swelling  or  irritation. 

Others  feel  the  action  of  the  setae,  and  to  some  the  bite  is 
decidedly  poisonous.  The  fluids  secreted  in  the  mouth 
enter  the  wound,  and  add  their  irritating  action  to  that 
occasioned  by  the  setae. 

Fortunate  the  city  dweller  who  has  never  seen  this  pest 
in  his  house ;  but  with  persistent,  intelligent  watchfulness 
even  so  wary  and  secretive  a  foe  may  be  outwitted. 

Prevention  should  begin  by  brushing  and  shaking  the 
clothes,  when  one  has  been  in  suspicious  places.  Articles  of 
furniture  should  be  carefully  inspected,  whether  new  or 
second-hand,  especially  the  latter,  for  auction  rooms  and 
similar  places  are,  from  the  decidedly  cosmopolitan  char- 
acter of  their  possessions,  very  apt  to  be  infested. 


336  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Any  house  or  tenement  should  be  carefully  inspected  be- 
fore occupation.  Look  for  the  pests  in  cracks,  in  torn  or 
loose  wall-papers,  and  along  picture  mouldings.  If  there  are 
signs  of  their  former  presence  in  the  specks  left  from  their 
excrement  or  mouth  secretions,  watch  incessantly  for  their 
reappearance.  Never  let  the  enemy  catch  the  housewife 
off  her  guard,  for  a  day's  advantage  may  mean  the  infesta- 
tion of  an  entire  room  or  house. 

Cleanness  everywhere,  freedom  from  dust  and  fluff  —  this 
alone  means  freedom  from  insect  pests. 

If  prevention  prove  unsuccessful  and  the  enemy  be  found, 
declare  a  daily  warfare  until  it  is  vanquished,  and  then  — 
watch  ! 

All  eggs  must  be  destroyed  before  any  permanent  success 
is  gained.  Bedsteads  furnish  the  favorite  breeding  places 
as  well  as  feeding  places  by  night,  and  hiding  places  by 
day.  They  are  the  chief  battle-ground.  An  occasional  coat 
of  thin  varnish  over  all  the  woodwork  under  the  mattress 
helps  to  drive  away  adults  and  to  kill  eggs. 

Boiling  water  will  kill  both  adults  and  eggs  if  it  touches 
them.  This  may  be  used  wherever  it  will  not  injure  the 
finished  furniture  or  spoil  fabrics.  Slats  to  bedsteads  may 
have  the  ends  immersed  in  boiling  water. 

Kerosene  and  naphtha  are  death  to  both  forms.  Kerosene 
is  the  safer  to  use  in  large  quantities  because  of  the  extreme 
danger  of  fire  with  the  naphtha.  Infested  upholstery  or 
bedding  may  be  saturated  with  naphtha,  if  left  out-of-doors 
or  not  exposed  to  any  flame  for  days.  Kerosene  has  a  more 
lasting  odor,  for  it  evaporates  more  slowly  and  will  also 
leave  a  stain,  if  dust  settles  in  it  while  the  oil  is  evaporat- 
ing. This  makes  its  use  more  objectionable  for  fabrics. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  effectual,  but  it  is  a  deadly  poison 
when  taken  internally. 

A  method  which  has  been  successful  in  many  cases  is  the 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  337 

persistent  use  of  ice-water.  This  no  doubt  would  prevent 
the  development  of  the  eggs,  and  its  faithful  use  tends  to 
the  cleanness  which  alone  is  effective  prevention. 

Liquids  are  necessary,  powders  are  practically  useless,  for 
the  eggs  are  deeply  concealed.  Whatever  liquid  is  used, 
it  should  be  poured  into  holes  or  cracks  and  crevices,  or 
injected  from  a  spring-bottom  oil-can  or  a  syringe. 

The  inflammation  consequent  upon  the  bite  of  Cimex  may 
be  relieved  by  bathing  with  ammonia  or  a  solution  of  cook- 
ing soda.  Insect  powder  between  the  sheets  of  an  infested 
bed  may  make  sleep  possible  until  morning  permits  the  vig- 
orous measures  necessary  for  the  extermination  of  the  pest. 

Preventive  Measures.  —  Every  possible  precaution  that 
shall  prevent  the  entrance  of  the  insect  into  the  house  on 
clothing,  furniture,  baggage,  etc. ;  cleanness  everywhere, 
especially  clean  bedsteads  and  bedding;  metal  bedsteads, 
wire  mattresses ;  daily  watchfulness  as  spring  approaches. 

Remedies.  —  Boiling  water,  ice-water,  kerosene,  naphtha, 
corrosive  sublimate,  varnish,  insect  powder. 


Fleas 

Diptera  —  Pulicidae  —  Pu/ex   serraticeps    and    Others.  —  The 

flea,  which  often  becomes  a  household  pest,  is  brought  in 
chiefly  by  the  pet  cat  or  dog.  The  insects  become  dislodged 
from  the  hairs  by  the  movements  of  the  animal,  and  find 
new  lodging  places  in  cracks  of  floors  or  in  meshes  of 
carpets.  Thence  they  jump  upon  the  ankles  of  persons 
who  disturb  them  by  walking  over  their  retreats. 

The  metamorphosis  of  the  flea  is  indirect.  The  adult  is 
a  small,  shiny,  black  insect,  with  a  plump  body  encased  in 
hard,  tough,  segmented  scales.  The  neck  tapers  toward  the 
head,  which  is  small  and  furnished  with  a  hard  helmet 
fringed  with  bristles.  The  legs  are  long,  and  the  two  seg- 


338  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

ments  nearest  the  body  enormously  developed  for  leaping. 
The  antennae  are  short  and  stout. 

The  egg  is  a  tiny,  smooth  and  shining,  white,  oval  body 
and  normally  is  laid  among  the  hairs  of  the  cat  or  dog, 
not  attached  to  them.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  two  days, 
and  the  larvae,  long,  slender,  caterpillar-like  bodies,  are 
very  active,  and  live  in  what  seem  to  be  absolutely  dry 
places.  The  sweepings  of  a  room  have  been  used  to  rear 
the  young  larvae,  in  which  case  dust  and  their  own  excre- 
ment furnished  sufficient  food. 

An  infested  pet  animal  may  drop  eggs  enough  to  give  rise 
to  a  small  army  of  adults,  if  they  are  left  undisturbed  in 
carpeted  rooms.  In  rooms  constantly  used,  the  ordinary 
sweeping  will  usually  either  remove  the  eggs  or  prevent 
their  hatching. 

The  pet  dog  or  cat  should,  therefore,  be  cared  for  first. 
There  will  then  be  little  further  trouble  with  Pulex  serrati- 
ceps;  although  it  is  wise  to  let  the  pets  have  their  special 
mat  or  cloth  to  lie  upon,  which  may  then  be  brushed  often 
over  the  fire. 

Floor  cracks  should  be  filled  with  plaster  of  Paris,  that  dust 
cannot  collect  and  furnish  food  for  this  or  other  insects. 

The  ordinary  insect  remedies  are  of  little  use  with  this 
tiny  athlete,  robed  in  his  black  coat  of  mail,  who  is  able  to 
live  upon  d.ust,  and  who  is  said  to  be  able  to  jump  two  hun- 
dred times  its  own  height.  If  once  they  get  a  foothold, 
only  strenuous  methods  are  of  any  avail.  Carpets  must  be 
taken  up,  steamed,  or  naphtha  cleansed.  Floors  should  be 
washed  in  hot  soap-suds.  Even  if  the  carpet  must  be  relaid, 
a  thin  coat  of  paint  on  the  floor  might  prove  an  economical 
investment. 

With  some  persons  the  bite  of  the  flea  brings  on  swelling 
and  intense  itching.  Both  may  be  allayed  with  salt  water. 
The  annoyance  is  severe  but  short. 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  339 

Preventive  Measures. — Care  of  the  pet  animals,  washing 
and  combing  and  general  cleanness  of  their  hair. 

Remedies.  —  Thorough  cleaning  of  the  infested  room, 
absence  of  dust  collections. 

LESSONS  IV  AND  V 
Insects  Injurious  to  Food  /Supplies 

Apparatus. — Borax,  sulphur,  molasses,  chocolate,  spices 
(clove,  cinnamon,  etc.) ;  salt,  plaster  of  Paris,  water,  propri- 
etary remedies,  a  small  mortar  for  grinding,  spoons  and 
dishes  for  mixing  materials,  spring-bottom  can,  materials 
stained  with  cockroach  excrement,  materials  scented  with 
the  cockroach  odor,  fabrics  or  papers  gnawed  by  cock- 
roaches. 

Cockroaches 

Orthoptera  —  Blattidae  —  Perip/aneta  (orientalis,  americana,  and 
australasice)  and  Ectobia  germanica.  —  It  is  not  strange  that 
with  the  many  conveniences  and  luxuries  of  modern  houses 
there  have  come  also  some  nuisances  -and  pests.  Some 
houses  are  as  warm  in  winter  as  in  summer,  and  too  often 
bad  air  is  an  accompaniment  of  this  heat.  Hot  air  and 
water  pipes  running  under  and  between  walls  and  floors 
make  many  warm,  dark,  snug  lurking  places  for  insects. 
Perhaps  the  most  common  and  offensive,  in  city  houses  at 
least,  are  the  different  varieties  of  cockroaches. 

The  roach  family  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  as  well  as 
the  most  numerous  in  the  insect  world.  The  moisture  and 
warmth  of  the  Carboniferous  period  especially  favored  the 
multiplication  of  all  species,  and  similar  conditions  in  the 
tropics  to-day  produce  similar  results.  They  have  always 
infested  ships,  and  are  thus  carried  into  all  parts  of  the 
globe.  Fortunately,  however,  for  the  housewife,  most  of 
the  species  live  out-of-doors,  feeding  upon  living  vegetation. 


340  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

The  common  species  in  this  country  are  known  by  differ- 
ent names  which  are  often  used  interchangeably,  the  "  water 
bug "  of  one  section  being  the  cockroaches  of  a  second,  or 
the  "black  beetles"  of  a  third. 

There  are  two  species  easily  distinguished  by  size  and 
color.  The  black  or  very  dark  brown  species  is  shiny  and 
stout,  the  adult  male  with  short,  thin  wings,  the  female 
nearly  wingless ;  the  other  species  varies  from  chocolate  to  a 
very  light  brown  marked  with  lighter  spots  or  bands  on  the 
back,  near  the  head,  and  at  the  bases  of  the  wings  or  their 
remnants.  In  all  species  the  eyes  are  insignificant,  the 
antennae  very  long,  the  mouth  parts  suited  to  biting,  and 
the  legs  to  swift  running  or  enormous  leaps.  They  are 
more  apt  to  trust  to  their  legs  than  to  their  wings  for 
safety.  The  segments  of  the  abdomen  overlap  and  may 
be  greatly  extended  like  an  accordion,  so  that  the  body 
is  rendered  thin  and  flat,  and  capable  of  entering  very  small 
cracks. 

The  metamorphosis  is  direct,  the  larva  and  pupa  resem- 
bling the  adult,  onty  smaller  and  minus  wings.  All  stages 
are  harmful.  All  species  are  very  active,  scudding  rapidly 
away  from  the  light  or  any  interference. 

The  eggs  are  laid  enclosed  in  an  oval  or  bean-shaped 
capsule,  with  its  surface  marked  into  rings  so  that  the 
whole  resembles  a  row  of  small  elliptical  crackers  placed 
face  to  face.  This  capsule  is  extruded  from  the  abdomen  of 
the  mother,  and  is  often  carried  by  her,  partly  showing,  for 
some  time.  All  such  capsules  found  should  be  burned. 

The  larvae  when  hatched  are  white,  but  soon  grow  yellow 
and  brownish  black.  Young  roaches  are  usually  seen  in 
company  with  the  adults,  and  it  may  be  that  they  are  cared 
for  or  brooded  a  little  while  after  birth.  If  true,  this  is, 
perhaps,  the  one  redeeming  feature  in  the  life  history  of  an 
otherwise  wholly  disgusting  insect.  The  black  cockroach 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  341 

certainly  seems  to  enjoy  the  antics  of  his  small  progeny, 
for  the  little  ones  run  over  the  parents,  cuddle  round  them, 
or  are  carried  by  them  with  no  sign  of  annoyance. 

Almost  any  dead  organic  matter  will  furnish  food  for 
some  or  all  the  species  of  domestic  roaches.  Food  supplies, 
fabrics,  leather,  paper, — all  may  be  gnawed  by  these  insects, 
and  the  damage  done  to  books  and  clothing  is  often  beyond 
repair. 

The  quantity  of  food  supplies  actually  consumed,  although 
by  no  means  inconsiderable,  might  be  overlooked,  if  these 
pests  did  not  so  often  spoil  whatever  they  come  into  contact 
with.  They  emit  from  their  mouths  and  certain  scent  glands 
a  dark  colored  fluid  which  stains  their  paths,  and  from  which 
and  their  excrement  as  well,  arises  a  fetid  and  disgusting 
odor.  Shelves,  boxes,  drawers,  and  closets  infested  have 
to  be  washed  with  hot  soap-suds  or  otherwise  disinfected; 
clothing  often  carries  the  odor,  and  cooking  utensils  impart 
it,  either  as  odor  or  taste,  to  food  and  drink. 

To. the  initiated  this  odor  often  tells  the  tale  of  an  in- 
fested house,  when  not  a  roach  is  seen,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
large,  fashionable  hotel  where  the  warm-air  ducts  of  the 
furnace  betrayed  the  secret  of  a  roach-infested  cold-air  box 
or  cellar. 

Roaches  always  seek  the  dark  when  disturbed,  as  if  they 
knew  their  deeds  were  evil.  They  will  even  drop  from  ceil- 
ing to  floor  and  scud  among  the  shadows.  From  this  habit 
grows  the  first  rule  for  prevention  of  the  pest. 

Allow  no  cracks  in  warm,  moist  places,  round  sinks  and 
water  pipes,  round  tubs  and  baseboards,  round  chimneys 
and  steam  pipes.  Fill  them  with  putty  or  plaster  of  Paris, 
which  may  be  painted  over  or  colored  to  match  the  wood- 
work. A  small  crack  is  dark,  holds  dust  and  dirt  which 
hold  grease  and  moisture  or  food  wastes,  so  that  all  such 
places  act  as  invitations  to  roaches. 


342  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Second: — Keep  all  places  which  might  harbor  roaches 
dry  and  free  from  crumbs  or  food  materials.  A  forgotten 
crust,  a  scrap  of  meat,  grains  of  sugar,  or  drops  of  sweet 
liquids,  may  call  an  army  that  will  overrun  the  house  in 
search  of  food  or  breeding  places. 

Third: — Let  in  the  light!  sunshine  wherever  possible. 
Abolish  the  dark,  damp  sink  cupboards,  the  dark  closet. 
Where  such  places  exist  constant  watchfulness  is  required, 
and  this  may  not  bring  complete  relief.  Light,  dryness, 
absence  of  food,  and  general  cleanness  will  reduce  the  cock- 
roach problem  to  its  lowest  terms. 

Remedies  are  such  or  not  according  to  conditions.  The 
roaches  are  very  wary  and  soon  become  accustomed  to  the 
methods  used  for  their  extermination,  either  avoiding  them, 
if  poison,  or  learning  to  ignore  them,  if  only  disagreeable. 
It  is  well,  therefore,  to  surprise  them  occasionally  by  new 
methods. 

Borax  or  insect  powder  should  be  scattered  round  sinks, 
tubs,  or  other  favorite  haunts.  Insect  powder  may  be 
burned  on  a  hot  stove  or  on  a  red-hot  shovel.  The  smoke 
and  odor  produced  in  this  way  are  often  a  more  effective 
remedy  than  the  dry  powder.  The  room  should  be  tightly 
closed  for  five  or  six  hours  in  order  to  get  the  full  benefit 
from  the  vapor.  If  this  be  done  at  night,  more  roaches  are 
likely  to  be  affected.  Equal  parts  of  borax  and  chocolate 
may  be  ground  together.  The  mixture  should  be  so  well 
made  that  each  bit  of  chocolate  should  have  its  bit  of  borax. 
The  chocolate  they  like ;  the  borax  they  dislike,  although 
they  soon  learn  to  disregard  its  effects. 

Plaster  of  Paris  and  common  salt,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  pound  of  the  plaster  to  five  ounces  of  salt,  may  be 
sprinkled  round  their  haunts  with  good  effect. 

Powders  interfere  with  their  respiration  by  clogging 
the  spiracles.  The  insects  are  rendered  sluggish,  and  may 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  343 

then  be  collected  and  burned.  This  is  an  effective  method 
with  the  black  beetle,  who  is  so  large,  so  plump,  and  so 
wary  that  he  is  killed  with  difficulty.  This  species  is 
socially  inclined  and  travels  in  companies.  When  con- 
ditions grow  unfavorable  or  the  battle  is  too  heavy 
against  them  in  one  house,  they  often  move  en  masse  to 
the  next.  When  never  a  cockroach  has  been  visible  for 
months,  if  a  light  be  suddenly  brought  into  the  closed 
kitchen  after  some  hours  of  darkness,  there  may  be  heard 
a  ghostly  scratching  and  scraping  as  a  small  army  of 
black  roaches  scuttles  away  to  seek  hiding  places.  For 
such  invasions  the  insect  powder  is  best.  Spread  it  gener- 
ously over  the  floor  at  dusk  and  leave  it  there  for  hours 
or  until  dawn.  Before  the  room  is  light  sweep  up  and  burn 
the  powder  and  the  stupefied  roaches. 

Sulphur  and  molasses  mixed  to  a  paste  and  spread  on 
paper  or  chips  scattered  round  their  haunts  usually  drives 
them  away  quickly.  Many  of  the  insect  exterminating 
pastes  owe  their  value  to  phosphorus. 

Advantage  may  be  taken  of  their  liking  for  sweet  liquids 
by  leaving  such  in  shallow  dishes,  or  with  some  means  of 
approach  provided  so  that  they  may  be  entrapped.  Traps 
are  effective  in  food  closets  when  insect  powder  would  be 
objectionable. 

Preventive  Measures.  — Light,  air,  absence  of  food,  clean- 
ness, absence  of  cracks. 

Remedies. — Insect  powder,  borax,  chocolate  and  borax, 
spices  and  borax,  sulphur  and  molasses,  plaster  of  Paris 
and  salt. 

Ants  and  Miscellaneous  Pests 

Apparatus.  —  Molasses,  syrup,  lard,  kerosene,  boiling  water, 
insect  powder,  small  sponges,  chips,  strips  of  fur,  small 


344  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 

dishes,  spring-bottom  can,  atomizer  or  bulb  syringe,  dried 
beans,  peas,  whole  spice  or  fruits  showing  the  work  of 
insects,  wooden  boxes  or  receptacles  gnawed  into  by  insects. 

LESSON  V 
Ants 

Hymenoptera  —  Formicidae  —  Monomorium  pharaonis,  Monomo- 
rium  minutum,  Tetramorium  ccespitum.  —  The  ants,  to  many  en- 
tomologists as  well  as  to  amateur  observers,  are  the  most 
interesting  of  all  insects.  Yet  to  the  housewife  they  can 
be  considered  only  as  pests,  except  as  she  studies  them 
individually. 

In  different  parts  of  the  country  different  species  are 
more  or  less  troublesome;  but  the  tiny  red  ant  is  the  one 
which  seems  to  be  thoroughly  domestic  in  its  tastes  and 
habits.  Besides  this  species  a  small  and  a  large  black  ant 
are  often  troublesome  in  pantries  and  storerooms.  The  red 
ant  is  so  tiny  and  agile  that  its  destruction  is  difficult. 
None  of  the  ants  are  destructive  in  so  many  ways  or  to 
so  great  a  degree  as  other  household  pests,  but  they  annoy 
by  getting  into  food  supplies  and  cooked  food,  especially 
the  fats,  sugars,  and  sweet  liquids.  The  most  distinctive 
characteristic  of  the  ants  is  the  constriction  at  the  "  waist," 
that  is,  between  the  second  and  last  segments  of  the  body. 
This  enables  the  abdomen  to  be  raised,  lowered,  or  moved 
very  quickly  and  forcibly.  The  wasp-like  waist  is  seen  oc- 
casionally on  so-called  higher  animals  to  whom  it  does  not 
properly  belong.  The  metamorphosis  is  indirect,  and  most 
children  are  familiar  with  ants'  larvae  and  pupae,  which  they 
wrongly  call  "ants'  eggs."  The  real  eggs  are  very  small, 
and  would  not  attract  the  attention  of  a  casual  observer 
even  when  visible  to  the  unaided  eye. 

Ants  are  creatures  wonderfully  specialized  according  to 
work  and  form.  Some  have  fully  developed  wings,  some 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  345 

have  only  the  rudiments,  while  others  bear  no  trace  of  such 
appendages.  Most  of  the  ants  found  in  the  house  are  the 
"  workers,"  and  do  not  have  wings. 

The  antennae  are  extremely  delicate,  slightly  swollen  at 
their  tip,  and  seldom  quiet.  The  mouth  parts  are  formed 
for  piercing  the  food  substance  and  for  drawing  from  it 
the  liquid  food. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  enormous  numbers  and  in  several 
batches.  The  nests  or  formicaries  hold  large  colonies 
made  up  of  all  forms  so  that  they  furnish  most  interesting 
and  instructive  objects  for  study.  The  adult  form,  how- 
ever, is  the  harmful  one. 

To  prevent  attacks  from  ants,  all  fats  and  sweets  should 
be  tightly  covered,  —  wooden  buckets  are  not  proof  against 
them.  Great  care  is  necessary  not  to  leave  any  grains  of 
sugar  or  crumbs  of  food  on  shelves  or  floors.  Cleanness 
and  protection  of  all  available  food  supplies  are  the  first 
requisites  for  freedom  from  the  ravages  of  any  of  these 
species. 

Both  of  the  black  species  usually  establish  their  colonies 
out-of-doors,  —  the  smaller  one  under  stones  in  the  yards  or 
in  holes  in  the  fields,  the  larger  one  under  the  pavements. 
Unless  the  colonies  are  destroyed,  the  relief  given  by  all 
other  measures  will  be  only  temporary,  for  the  females 
seldom  leave  the  nests,  and  they  start  many  colonies  dur- 
ing one  season. 

The  little  red  ant  (Monomorium  pharaonis)  has  its  nest 
in  the  walls  beneath  the  floors  or  in  cracks  behind  the  wood- 
work of  the  house.  Thence  the  workers  sally  forth  for 
supplies.  When  these  are  found,  the  news  is  quickly  car- 
ried to  the  colony  and  swarms  issue  forth  to  feed  and  for- 
age. By  watching  their  movements  the  nests  may  often 
be  located  and  destroyed  by  pouring  in  kerosene,  or  car- 
bolic acid,  or  a  boiling  hot,  strong  solution  of  alum.  Some- 


346  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

times  it  is  necessary  to  take  up  boards  in  the  flooring.  In 
some  way  the  colonies  should  be  located,  if  any  one  of  these 
forms  becomes  a  pest.  They  are  persistent  in  retaining 
their  homes,  and  the  housewife  must  be  as  persistent  as 
they  are,  if  she  hopes  to  keep  them  from  the  house  or  its 
vicinity. 

Pastry  is  a  delicious  titbit  for  the  little  red  ant,  and 
many  a  woman  has  first  found  out  their  presence  by 
seeing  them  appear  upon  the  pie  she  was  serving  for 
dessert. 

Shelves  may  be  washed  with  a  five  per  cent  carbolic  acid 
solution,  with  a  decoction  of  quassia  chips,  or  hot  alum 
water.  Powdered  lime  or  borax  sprinkled  freely  on  shelves 
and  floors  may  be  effective.  Certain  strong  odors  are  objec- 
tionable to  the  red  ant  especially.  Wormwood,  cucumber, 
or  pennyroyal  are  used  for  this  purpose.  Cucumber  par- 
ings, the  fresh  herbs,  or  the  oil  of  pennyroyal  may  be  used. 
The  last  may  be  spread  about  on  bits  of  cotton. 

Lard  is  an  attractive  bait.  Chips  holding  lard  may  be 
placed  in  the  infested  places ;  the  little  creatures  will  swarm 
over  these,  and  when  they  are  well  covered  they  should  be 
thrown  into  the  fire.  A  strip  of  fur  placed  along  the  shelf 
or  round  plates  of  food  is  a  protection,  for  the  ants  get 
entangled  among  the  hairs.  Plunge  the  infested  fur  into 
boiling  water  and  thoroughly  dry  afterwards. 

The  black  ants  have  so  strong  a  liking  for  sweets  that 
these  furnish  the  best  bait  for  them.  Saturate  small  bits 
of  sponge  with  syrup,  molasses,  or  a  solution  of  borax  and 
sugar.  Leave  them  about  the  places  most  frequented  by 
the  ants.  When  these  are  well  stocked,  plunge  into  boiling 
water  as  before. 

Preventive  Measures.  —  Covering,  or  tight  closing,  of  food 
supplies,  especially  fats  and  sugars ;  cleanness  and  dryness ; 
absence  of  all  attractive  substances. 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  347 

Remedies.  —  Boiling  water,  carbolic  acid,  alum,  traps,  fur, 
borax,  wormwood,  quassia,  pennyroyal,  cucumber. 

Miscellaneous  Pests.  —  The  number  of  insects  which  may 
be  found  in  pantries  and  storerooms  is  almost  infinite. 
Some  of  these  affect  only  moist  food  supplies  like  meats, 
pickles,  cheese,  etc.;  others  are  found  in  meals,  prepared 
cereals,  spices,  legumes,  and  dried  fruits.  Many  times  these 
food  materials  become  infested  in  the  mills  or  storehouses ; 
others  in  the  groceries  or  markets ;  while  others  may  become 
so  through  lack  of  proper  care  in  the  individual  house. 

All  supplies  should  be  examined  carefully  when  bought. 
When  meals,  flours,  crackers,  dry  fruits,  or  prepared  cereals 
show  silken  threads  or  traces  of  webs  or  insects  either  at 
first  sight  or  after  sifting,  —  all  such  suspicious  supplies 
should  be  returned  to  the  store.  If  the  nuisance  continues, 
another  source  of  supply  should  be  sought. 

Persons  in  charge  of  mills  and  storehouses  should  under- 
stand the  dangers  to  their  products  and  the  preventive  and 
remedial  measures.  If  there  is  carelessness  here,  the  inter- 
mediate dealer  should  return  all  infested  products ;  and  the 
honest,  enterprising  grocer  or  marketman  will  see  to  it 
that  his  goods  are  not  contaminated  while  in  his  posses- 
sion. 

Supplies,  non-infested  when  bought,  become  so  very  soon 
if  pantries  and  store-closets  are  not  kept  cool  and  dry. 
Moisture  and  warmth  are  the  favorable  conditions  for  most 
insect  development.  Wooden  receptacles  may  harbor  eggs 
or  larvae  for  long  periods  within  their  seams  or  crevices ; 
larvae  may  enter  such,  or  eat  through  pasteboard,  or  through 
paper  bags.  Glass,  tin,  stone,  or  earthen  receptacles  are 
safer  for  the  storage  of  any  food  materials.  Such  food- 
holders  in  cool,  dry  rooms  will  reduce  to  the  minimum  all 
danger  from  insect  pests. 

Where  wooden  buckets  or  barrels  must  be  used,  a  coat  of 


848  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

paint  outside  serves  as  a  protection ;  but  nothing  can  take 
the  place  of  dryness  and  constant  cleanness. 

Here,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  house,  and  with 
all  insects,  especial  watchfulness  should  be  exercised  in  the 
early  spring  months  that  no  hibernating  adults  or  develop- 
ing pupae  spread  infestation  while  the  housewife  is  off 
guard. 

LESSONS  VI  AND  VII 

Insects  Injurious  to  Clothing  or  Fabrics. —  Clothes  Moths 
and  Silverfish 

Apparatus. — Insect  powder,  naphtha,  "moth  balls"  or 
other  "exterminators,"  camphor,  black  pepper,  cedar  chips, 
tarred  paper,  pasteboard  boxes  to  illustrate  sealing,  paper, 
mucilage  or  paste,  water,  paper  bags,  cotton  bags  (pillow 
slips),  newspapers,  twine,  needle  and  thread,  fur,  steel 
comb,  woollen  stuffs  to  be  cleaned  and  packed,  rattan  or 
flexible  wand,  hot  flatiron,  clothes  for  steaming. 

Clothes  Moths 

Lepidoptera  —  Heterocera  —  Tinea,   Tineola,    and    Others.  — 

There  are  different  species  of  these  insects  which  infest 
different  sections  of  the  country.  In  the  colder  portions  and 
in  country  houses  their  ravages  are  confined  to  the  summer 
season ;  but  in  the  warmer  parts  and  in  cities,  where  houses 
are  kept  at  summer  temperature  throughout  the  year,  their 
ravages  may  continue  indefinitely. 

The  adult  insect  is  small,  yellowish,  or  buff-colored,  with 
two  pairs  of  delicate  wings,  the  forward  pair  darker  than 
the  other,  either  with  or  without  spots  or  distinctive  mark- 
ings. The  most  common  species  has  dark  spots  along  the 
bases  of  hairs  which  fringe  the  edges  of  the  wings,  and  de- 
tached spots  near  the  forward  edge.  The  antennae  are  long, 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  349 

slender,  and  tapering.  The  head  looks  like  a  small  cushion 
with  hairs  for  pins. 

With  spread  wings  the  moth  measures  little  more  than 
half  an  inch.  They  are  averse  to  light,  and  fly  around  the 
darker  parts  of  the  room.  This  habit  with  the  smaller  size 
serves  to  distinguish  between  them  and  those  varieties 
which  fly  round  lights  and  often  burn  themselves  to  death  in 
the  flames.  The  metamorphosis  of  these  moths  is  indirect. 

The  adult  or  imago  is  harmful  only  because  it  lays  the 
eggs,  for  its  mouth  parts  are  fitted  for  lapping,  and  it  must, 
therefore,  take  liquid  food.  The  pupa  takes  no  food,  so 
that  the  harm  is  done  by  the  larva,  and  this  begins  to  eat 
as  soon  as  it  leaves  the  egg.  When  seen  flying  round  the 
house,  the  moth  or  "  miller  "  is  either  seeking  a  suitable 
place  to  deposit  her  eggs  on  has  just  deposited  them,  and 
is,  perhaps,  taking  its  last  flight,  for  they  die  very  soon, 
after  they  have  laid  their  eggs. 

The  mother  moth  cannot  be  accused  of  neglect,  for  she 
invariably  selects  those  materials  and  those  parts  of  the 
materials  which  will  furnish  the  richest  supply  of  warmth 
and  necessary  food  for  the  tiny  babies.  She  also  scatters 
them  here  and  there,  not  depositing  them  in  one  place ; 
thus  'ensuring  each  larva  sufficient  room  to  get  its  food  and 
clothing. 

Some  varieties  prefer  to'  bring  up  their  babies  upon  wool, 
others  choose  hair  or  fur  or  feathers;  but  if  they  cannot 
get  their  first  choice,  they  will  accommodate  themselves  to 
circumstances,  and  find  their  food  among  any  or  all  of  the 
above  substances.  Possibly  they  may  sometimes  vary  their 
diet  with  silk  or  paper,  but  this  is  not  common,  and  cotton 
they  have  not  yet  deigned  to  add  to  their  already  generous 
bill  of  fare. 

The  mother  moth  is  instinctively  wise.  She  not  only 
chooses  the  best  materials  for  food,  but  also  knows  that 


350  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

folds,  gathers,  and  creases  collect  and  hold  dust,  absorb 
vapors  from  cooking,  from  fires  and  lights,  and  that  such 
places  are  least  likely  to  be  thoroughly  and  often  cleaned. 
Such  places  are  the  chosen  nurseries  —  the  gathers  in 
woollen  dress-skirts ;  the  collars  and  folds  and  under-arm 
spaces  of  coats  and  waists;  the  seams  and  creases  in 
trousers,  where  mingled  dust,  perspiration,  and  grease  stock 
the  larder. 

The  eggs  of  all  species  are  nearly  or  quite  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye,  and  are  usually  laid  directly  upon  the  material 
which  will  serve  as  food,  but  sometimes  in  crevices  and 
cracks  of  trunks,  boxes,  floors,  or  in  empty  nail-holes  where 
the  tiny  larvse  may  readily  gain  access  to  the  food  materials. 

The  larva,  called  worm  rather  than  caterpillar,  is  whitish 
in  color  with  a  dark  head.  As  soon  as  hatched,  the  common 
species  builds  for  itself  a  cylindrical  jacket  or  case  out  of 
the  materials  upon  which  it  finds  itself.  This  is  its  first 
work.  The  outside  of  the  jacket  is  therefore  the  same  in 
color  as  the  food  material,  but  the  inside  is  lined  with  soft, 
whitish  silk.  The  lava  thus  eats  paths  along  the  cloth,  or 
in  some  cases  burrows  directly  through  the  goods,  burying 
itself  in  the  tunnels  of  fuzzy  pile.  They  are  sometimes 
found  outside  of  their  cases,  although,  usually,  only  the 
brownish  head  and  next  segment  of  the  body  are  visible. 

As  the  body  grows  it  requires  a  larger  jacket  or  case,  and 
the  larva  cuts  a  slit  and  inserts  a  gusset  or  gore  to  increase 
the  diameter,  besides  increasing  the  length.  If  different 
colored  cloths  furnish  the  food  during  the  larval  stage,  the 
jacket  may  become  a  Joseph's  coat  of  many  colors.  When 
rearing  the  larvse  for  examination,  this  is  a  pleasing  experi- 
ment to  try. 

In  dealing  with  moths  as  with  all  harmful  or  disagreeable 
pests,  "  Prevention  is  better  than  cure." 

It  is  easier  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  the  parent  than  to 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  351 

kill  the  eggs,  or  the  larvae,  or  to  remedy  the  ravages.  The 
preventive  measures  include:  early  screening  of  windows 
and  doors,  for  the  moths  usually  deposit  their  eggs  in  April 
or  May  (some  species  raise  two  broods,  the  latter  one  in 
August  or  September) ;  plenty  of  sunlight  and  fresh  air 
throughout  the  house;  light  closets,  and  these  often  aired 
and  kept  free  from  dust  and  fluff ;  absence  of  heavy  carpets 
which  cover  the  entire  floor  and  are  fastened  close  to  the 
wall,  as  these  gather  dust,  are  hard  to  keep  clean,  and 
will  not  be  removed  and  aired  as  often  as  is  desirable; 
as  few  articles  or  stuffs  as  possible  that  are  food  for  these 
forms.  The  too  many  pieces  with  unused  or  unusable  gar- 
ments, which  often  fill  trunks  and  drawers  would  better  be 
destroyed,  given  away,  or  used,  than  stored,  thus  inviting 
moths  and  final  waste. 

Articles  which  must  be  stored  should  first  be  thoroughly 
cleaned.  Any  article  which  can  be  washed  should  be.  All 
grease  spots  must  be  removed,  and  dust  beaten  or  shaken 
out.  Woollen  stuffs  and  furs  should  be  hung  out-of-doors 
in  the  sun  and  wind ;  beaten  with  a  small  rattan  or  other 
flexible  stick,  —  furs  may  be  combed  with  a  steel  comb,  — 
and  thoroughly  brushed.  All  this  is  necessary  to  insure 
the  absence  of  eggs.  If  all  eggs  are  not  removed  before 
storage  in  warm,  dry,  dark  places,  there  is  no  safety.  The 
eggs  will  hatch,  and  the  larvae  have  nothing  to  interfere 
with  their  feast. 

Strong  odors  generally  repel  moths.  Perhaps  the  odors 
themselves  are  disagreeable,  or  perhaps  they  cover  up  the 
natural  odor  of  the  stuff,  which,  to  the  insect,  is  an  invita- 
tion to  come  in  and  establish  its  family.  This  fact  explains 
why  camphor,  cedar,  pepper,  tar,  "moth  balls/'  and  other 
preparations  are  recommended  for  the  protection  of  woollen 
goods  and  furs.  Such  substances  may  prevent  the  mother 
from  entering,  but  do  not  kill  the  eggs,  which  may  have  been 


352  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

laid  on  or  in  the  articles  or  packages.     All  such  substances 
lose  their  strong  odor  after  a  while  and  become  useless. 

Moth  eggs  will  not  hatch  if  kept  very  cold.  A  constant 
temperature  of  40°  F.  will  prevent  all  ravages  from  moths. 
Cold  storage  warehouses  are  often  kept  as  low  as  25°  F.,  so 
that  articles  stored  there  may  be  kept  safely  any  length  of 
time.  The  assurance  of  safety  is  worth  the  additional 
expense,  where  many  or  valuable  articles  are  to  be  pre- 
served. 

If  a  light,  airy  room  or  closet  can  be  spared,  dresses, 
coats,  furs,  blankets,  etc.,  may  be  hung  or  left  loosely  on 
shelves,  if  examined,  shaken,  and  brushed  every  month  or 
oftener,  according  to  conditions.  They  are  much  safer 
than  when  put  away  in  dark,  close  packages,  subject  to 
wrinkles.  Turpentine,  camphor,  tobacco,  or  other  strong- 
smelling  substances  may  be  sprinkled  or  spread  on  floors 
or  left  in  an  open  bottle  in  the  room  near  the  doors  or  other 
places  where  moths  might  enter. 

If  clothing  must  be  left  undisturbed,  the  thorough  clean- 
ing of  every  article  may  be  followed  by  packing  it  smoothly 
in  boxes,  bags,  bundles,  etc.,  with  any  preferred  substance 
to  furnish  the  disagreeable  odor.  The  latter  is  not  neces- 
sary if  the  enclosing  receptacles  are  absolutely  sealed 
against  the  moth.  Boxes  may  have  strips  of  paper  pasted 
over  the  crack  between  cover  and  box.  Paper  bags  should 
have  the  tops  turned  over  and  pasted  down;  cloth  bags 
must  have  the  open  mouth  turned  under  and  sewed 
securely.  They  should  also  be  made  of  cotton.  Packages 
may  be  wrapped  in  cotton  or  newspapers  with  no  crack  or 
broken  place  where  this  extremely  thin  little  insect  may 
enter.  Trunks,  closets,  drawers,  or  boxes  may  be  sprayed 
with  naphtha  or  turpentine. 

Naphtha,  benzine,  turpentine,  kill  both  eggs  and  moths, 
therefore  these  are  both  preventives  and  remedies.  The 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS 


extreme  inflammability  of  their  vapors  is  the  chief  argument 
against  their  use.  They  must  not  be  used  where  there  is 
any  fire  or  flame,  or  where  there  will  be  such  for  some  time. 
Woollen  garments  may  be  cleaned  with  naphtha,  carpets  and 
furniture  may  be  sprayed  or  saturated  with  it.  If  the  work 
be  done  out-of-doors  and  the  stuffs  left  until  no  odor  is  per- 
ceptible, there  seems  to  be  no  better  remedy.  Turpentine 
does  not  evaporate  as  quickly  as  naphtha,  and  both  odors 
may  be  detected  from  furniture  in  a  warm  room  for  a  long 
time  after  the  process  of  cleaning. 

When  the  edges  of  carpets  are  infested,  the  tacks  may  be 
taken  out,  the  carpet  turned  over  for  some  inches,  folds  of 
wet  cloth  laid  under  and  over  the  carpet  strip,  and  hot  flat- 
irons  applied.  The  steam  will  penetrate  and  kill  larvae  and 
eggs. 

Kerosene,  naphtha,  or  turpentine  may  be  sprayed  or  poured 
along  the  edges  or  into  cracks  at  such  times  as  may  be  safe 
from  fire.  Black  pepper  and  insect  powder  kept  along  the 
edges  may  prevent  the  deposition  of  eggs. 

The  safest  and  surest  methods  of  dealing  with  the  moth 
pest  are  the  methods  of  prevention.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
know  that  all  eggs  are  absent,  when  once  they  have  been 
present. 

When  a  house  is  to  be  closed  for  the  summer,  pans  of 
water  should  be  left  in  the  centre  of  the  floors.  Moths  and 
other  insects  will  go  here  for  water  and  may  be  caught. 
Evaporation,  for  much  longer  periods,  may  be  prevented  by 
spraying  a  thin  film  of  some  inodorous  oil  over  the  surface. 

The  methods  of  fumigation  used  in  houses  where  con- 
tagious diseases  have  occurred  also  exterminate  moths. 

Preventive  Measures.  —  Light,  sunshine  if  possible,  air, 
absence  of  breeding  places,  cleanness  in  house  and  of  cloth- 
ing, cold  storage,  frequent  examination,  movement  and  use, 
strong  odors. 

2A 


354  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Remedies.  —  Brushing,  beating,  and  combing,  steam,  kero- 
sene, naphtha,  turpentine,  fumigation. 

Silverfish 

Thysanura  —  Lepismatidae  —  Lepisma.  —  In  old  houses,  in 
attics,  and  sometimes  in  the  closets  of  any  house  is  seen  a 
pretty,  slender,  agile  insect,  popularly  called  silverfish, 
because  of  its  color,  its  scales,  and  undulatory  movements. 
Other  names  are  " sugar-fish,"  "fish-moth,"  " silverwitch," 
and  "thistletail." 

The  scales  are  smooth  and  slippery,  the  body  is  wingless 
and  worm-like  in  appearance,  about  one-third  of  an  inch 
long.  The  head  bears  two  long  slender  antennae,  while  the 
anal  end  carries  three  long,  barbed  bristles,  one  extended  in 
line  with  the  body,  the  others,  one  on  each  side,  sometimes 
at  right  angles  to  the  first. 

The  silverfish  seems  to  have  a  voracious  appetite  for  lace 
curtains,  holland  shades,  and  all  starched  goods.  It  attacks 
books,  silks,  and  wall-paper,  probably  to  get  at  the  sizing  or 
paste  which  they  supply,  and  it  occasionally  tastes  the  food 
supplies.  The  most  damage  is  done  when  a  furnished 
house  is  closed  for  the  summer  or  for  a  longer  time. 
Fabrics  in  use  and,  therefore,  often  disturbed  are  least 
subject  to  injury. 

No  special  preventive  measures  apply  to  this  insect. 

All  specimens  seen  should  be  killed,  and  fabrics  packed 
away  should  be  often  examined  and  shaken.  Insect  powder 
may  be  scattered  freely  under  and  about  trunks,  packing- 
boxes,  and  shelves,  while  bookcases  should  also  have  a 
generous  supply. 

The  appetite  for  starch  which  the  silverfish  shows 
should  not  be  catered  to  by  putting  stored  fabrics  away 
in  a  starched  condition. 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  355 

Preventive  Measures. — Frequent  examination  of  stored 
fabrics,  dryness  in  trunks  and  any  receptacles  for  stored 
fabrics. 

Remedies.  —  Insect  powder. 

Carpet-beetles  and  Crickets 

Apparatus. — Insect  powder,  naphtha,  turpentine,  kerosene, 
tarred  roofing  paper,  water,  specimens  of  fabrics  eaten  by 
carpet-beetles,  specimens  of  cloth  eaten  by  crickets,  atomizer 
or  syringe,  spring-bottom  can,  trap  bated  with  sweet  liquid 
for  crickets,  hot  flatiron,  cloths  for  steaming,  pieces  of  car- 
pet to  illustrate  steaming. 

LESSON  VII 
Carpet-beetles 

Coleoptera  —  Dermestidae — Anthrenus  Scrophu/arice.  — During 
the  last  twenty-five  years  great  havoc  has  been  caused 
in  some  parts  of  the  United  States  by  an  insect  pest, 
familiarly  called  "buffalo  bug,"  or  "buffalo  moth."  It  is 
neither  a  bug  nor  a  moth,  but  a  beetle,  and,  like  the  moths, 
it  is  the  larvae  which  eat  carpets  and  other  fabrics.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  called  "  buffalo  beetle  "  when  it  was  first 
found  injuring  carpets  in  the  city  of  Buffalo,  in  1872. 

It  is  found  most  frequently  in  the  late  spring,  in  the 
summer,  and  fall  months,  for  cold  or  lack  of  food  retards 
its  development.  It  is,  however,  very  persistent  of  life,  and 
may  exist  for  months  in  unoccupied  houses,  without  food, 
except  that  furnished  by  the  dusty  lint  and  fluff  which 
are  never  absent.  Like  the  moth,  it  prefers  wool,  but  will 
riddle  silk,  and  often  attacks  books,  either  for  the  paste  and 
glue  used  in  their  binding,  or  for  the  binding  itself. 

The  common  species  is  a  small  beetle,  nearly  elliptical, 
or  broadly  oval  in  shape,  covered  on  the  back  with  minute 


356  HANDBOOK  OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

scales  which  give  it  a  black  and  white  appearance.  There 
are  more  or  less  distinct  blotches  of  red  caused  by  a  stripe 
down  the  middle  of  the  back,  which  widens  in  three  places 
along  its  course.  It  plays  "possum"  when  disturbed. 

The  head  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  body  except 
by  the  short  knobbed  antennae.  Each  leg  ends  in  a  tiny 
hook. 

The  metamorphosis  is  indirect. 

The  larva  is  longer  than  the  adult,  with  the  plainly  seg- 
mented body  tapering  towards  the  anal  end.  Each  segment 
has  a  tuft  of  stiff  brown  hairs  on  each  side,  while  on  the 
back  a  larger  tuft  of  longer  hairs  finishes  the  body  at  each 
end.  The  larva  is  very  active,  eats  voraciously,  and  is 
usually  found  covered  with  the  fuzz  of  the  material  upon 
which  it  is  feeding.  This  fuzzy,  hairy  appearance  might 
well  gain  for  it  its  name  of  "buffalo."  The  larvae  do  not 
cling  to  the  cloth  as  do  the  larvae  of  moths,  and  the  eggs 
are  always  laid  in  dark  places. 

Under  favorable  conditions  the  larva  changes  into  the 
pupa  quite  rapidly.  The  adults  are  day-fliers,  and  as  soon 
as  the  pupal  skin  is  cast  they  try  to  leave  the  house  to 
reach  certain  plants  whose  pollen  is  their  favorite  food. 
Scrophulariacece  and  some  Compositce  are  often  chosen,  but 
the  white  spiraeas  are  their  especial  delight.  All  specimens 
found  upon  such  plants  should  be  killed,  for  they  will 
probably  go  into  houses  to  lay  their  eggs. 

Where  the  beetles  work  in  carpets,  they  sometimes  eat 
irregular  holes  here  and  there  from  the  under  side,  and 
sometimes  follow  the  cracks,  cutting  long  slits.  In  folded 
garments  they  eat  small  round  holes  through  all  the  folds. 
A  folded  silk  umbrella  was  found  with  tiny  holes  each 
side  of  every  rib,  and  the  guilty  larva  dropped  when  the 
umbrella  was  raised. 

As  with  moths,  so  with  this   pest,  all-over   carpets   are 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  357 

especially  favorable  lodging,  feeding,  and  breeding  places, 
because  of  the  dirt  there  preserved,  and  because  they  are 
not  shaken,  beaten,  and  aired  sufficiently  often.  Stuffs 
which  are  examined  and  shaken  may  be  kept  from  their 
ravages,  because  the  larvae  are  not  attached  to  the  fibres. 

Preventive  measures  are  identical  with  those  for  moths. 

In  storerooms  and  attics  where  many  woollen  goods  are 
kept  it  is  sometimes  feasible  to  spread  for  the  beetles  a 
special  table  !  One  ingenious  housekeeper  used  to  lay  a 
strip  of  red  flannel  on  her  attic  floor  and  daily  shake  it  over 
the  fire  or  plunge  it  into  a  pan  of  boiling  water.  In  this 
way  she  protected  valuable  property.  They  seemed  to  like 
red  better  than  any  other  color. 

It  is,  perhaps,  the  worst  enemy  of  woollen  stuffs,  and 
where  once  established  requires  the  most  vigorous  and 
persistent  efforts  before  it  can  be  eradicated.  If  its  occur- 
rence leads  the  American  housewife  to  discard  her  all-over 
carpets,  it  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  blessing  in  disguise.  In 
Europe,  its  original  home,  it  is  not  considered  a  general 
household  pest,  probably  because  bare  floors  and  rugs  are 
the  rule,  rather  than  the  exception. 

If  carpets  must  be  retained  where  this  pest  has  shown 
itself,  they  should  be  thoroughly  beaten,  and  naphtha 
cleansed;  the  floors  washed  with  strong,  hot  soap-suds,  or 
sprayed  with  kerosene,  benzine,  or  turpentine;  all  cracks 
filled  with  plaster  of  Paris,  the  edges,  better  the  entire 
floor,  covered  with  tarred  roofing  paper  before  the  carpet 
is  relaid. 

Another  beetle  has  been  found  to  eat  carpets,  woollen 
stuffs,  feathers,  and  books.  In  some  places  it  has  given 
more  trouble  than  the  previous  form,  but  in  general  fewer 
complaints  are  made  about  it.  It  may  occur  in  the  same 
places  and  under  the  same  conditions  as  the  other.  The 
adult  (Attagenifs  piceus)  is  smooth  and  black,  smaller  and 


358  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

more  oblong  in  shape ;  the  larva  is  long,  slim,  light  brown, 
with  its  narrower  body  tapering  toward  the  anal  end  which 
bears  a  wisp  of  long,  slender  hairs.  It,  too,  has  hairs  over 
the  sides  and  back,  but  they  are  more  flexible  and  closely 
appressed  to  the  body.  Its  habits  and  work  resemble  those 
of  the  previous  species,  and  the  same  measures  of  preven- 
tion and  extermination  apply.  This,  however,  usually 
works  equally  well  during  all  seasons,  while  the  "buffalo 
bug  "  works  its  greatest  damage  during  the  summer  months. 

At  the  risk  of  killing  a  few  innocent  species,  it  will  be 
well  to  destroy  every  small,  black,  or  black  and  white 
beetle  found  in  the  house.  The  "  lady-bird  "  saves  herself 
from  this  general  slaughter  by  the  red  color  of  her  coat,  and 
her  gay,  prominent  spots.  She  feeds  upon  plant  aphides, 
and  should  be  spared. 

Preventive  Measures.  —  All  given  for  moths,  especially 
emphasized. 

Remedies.  —  Same  as  for  moths,  more  persistently  applied. 

Crickets 

Orthoptera  —  Gryllidae  —  Gryllus.  —  In  country  houses  the 
cricket  on  the  hearth  may  become  the  cricket  in  the  laundry 
basket,  the  bureau  drawers,  or  closets,  and  it  may  meet  its 
death  in  the  uncovered  dish  of  liquid  from  which  it  took  its 
last  draught.  It  prefers  liquid  food,  but  that  failing,  it 
finds  other  pantry  supplies  decidedly  to  its  taste.  If  these 
be  not  at  hand,  it  does  not  hesitate  to  attack  clothing, 
whether  from  hunger,  or  simply  to  keep  its  jaws  moving,  it 
is  hard  to  tell.  Perhaps  the  most  harm  comes  to  the  basket 
of  damp  clothes  awaiting  the  laundress,  for  there  the 
cricket  finds  a  convenient  source  of  moisture.  The  common 
grasshopper,  too,  will,  if  detained  in  the  house,  dine  on  the 
housewife's  possessions. 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  359 

The  cricket  cannot  become  a  serious  household  pest  so 
long  as  it  does  not  breed  there,  but  always  in  the  fields. 
It  is  well  to  be  on  the  watch,  however,  for  some  enterprising 
individual  cricket  may  decide  to  change  its  habits,  and  be- 
come an  in-doors  insect.  The  metamorphosis  is  direct. 

The  adults  are  large,  nearly  or  quite  black  insects,  with 
long,  threadlike  antennae  extending  from  the  large,  smooth 
head.  The  hind  legs  have  strongly  developed  muscles, 
which  enable  the  insect  to  take  quick,  long  leaps.  This  is 
more  often  its  method  of  escape  than  by  the  use  of  its  wings, 
although  these  are  long,  and  well  developed.  The  feet  are 
furnished  with  prongs,  which  enable  the  insect  to  hold  quite 
tightly  to  any  fabric.  Its  characteristic  love  song  is  made 
by  movements  of  one  wing  over  the  other.  Its  mouth  parts 
are  suitable  for  biting,  and  they  use  them  as  a  means  of 
defence  when  captured  by  hand. 

Cricket  is  so  plump,  so  merry,  and  altogether  so  interest- 
ing that  one  hesitates  to  kill  it.  Yet,  if  it  becomes  a  pest, 
it  should  be  exterminated.  Its  desire  for  moisture  and 
sweet  liquids  may  become  its  ruin,  and  such  substances 
may  serve  as  traps  for  Mr.  Gryllus. 

Ancient  .superstitions  still  cling  about  this  black  singer, 
and  many  persons  still  believe  that  if  a  cricket  be  killed,  its 
relatives  will  avenge  the  murder  by  destroying  the  clothes 
of  the  murderer.  It  is  easier  to  kill  crickets  than  supersti- 
tions. 

Preventive  measures  may  be  included  in  one  word  — 
watchfulness;  remedies  can  scarcely  stop  short  of  actual 
death. 

Suggestions  for  Related  Language  and  Reading  Lessons.  — 
Encourage  observation  of  insects  in  field  and  garden  — 
especially  ants,  beetles,  and  bees.  Require  written  descrip- 
tions of  the  results  of  such  observations. 


360  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Written  descriptions  of  typical  insects.  Compare  with 
authoritative  descriptions  in  books. 

Keep  list  of  insects  observed  and  studied. 

Note  adaptations  of  structure  to  habits  of  life  —  flattened 
bodies  in  insects  choosing  cracks  as  hiding  places ;  color  and 
markings  like  substances  preferred  for  food,  etc. 

Written  description  of  the  above  in  the  form  of  essays,  to 
cultivate  accuracy  of  statement,  and  in  form  of  stories  or 
dialogues  between  insects  and  carpenters,  etc.,  for  the  exer- 
cise of  the  imagination. 

Calculate  damage  to  property,  actual  or  estimated,  due  to 
lack  of  care.  Compare  this  with  actual  or  estimated  expense 
of  preventive  or  remedial  measure.  Draw  up  balance  sheet. 

Select  from  Bibliography  books  or  selections  most  appro- 
priate for  grade  and  work.  Read,  and  have  written  reviews 
of  matter  read  —  condensed  or  expanded  account  of  same. 

Search  through  general  literature,  prose  and  poetry,  for 
references  to  insects,  —  their  habits,  work,  treatment;  for 
figures  of  speech  drawn  from  the  general  subject,  as :  Prov. 
xxxi.  27,  first  clause ;  Prov.  vi.  6. 

A  close  mouth  catches  no  flies.  —  CERVANTES. 
Maidens,  like  moths,  are  ever  caught  by  glare.  —  BYRON. 

And  half-starved  spiders  prey'd  on  half-starved  flies. 

—  CHURCHILL. 
Here  Skugg  lies  snug 
As  a  bug  in  a  rug.  — B.  FRANKLIN. 

Like  summer  friends, 

Flies  of  estate  and  sunneshine. 

—  GEO.  HERBERT. 

A  worm  is  in  the  bud  of  youth, 
And  at  the  root  of  age.  —  COWPER. 

A  fly  bit  the  bare  pate  of  a  bald  man,  who,  in  endeavoring  to  crush 
it,  gave  himself  a  hard  slap.  Then  said  the  fly,  jeeringly,  "You 


HOUSEHOLD   PESTS  361 

wanted  to  revenge  the  sting  of  a  tiny  insect  with  death ;  what  will 
you  do  to  yourself  who  have  added  insult  to  injury  ?  "  — PH^EDRUS. 

What  is  not  good  for  the  swarm  is  not  good  for  the  bee.  Every- 
thing is  in  a  state  of  metamorphosis.  — MARCUS  AURELIUS. 

Solon  used  to  say  that  .  .  .  laws  were  like  cobwebs. 

And  others  more  or  less  familiar. 

Let  pupils  originate  figures  of  speech  founded  upon 
insects'  structure,  habits,  etc.  Class  criticise,  improve,  if 
possible.  Have  notebooks  in  which  above  figures  of  speech, 
whether  quoted  or  original,  may  be  kept. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

HOUSE  CLEANING 

BY  L.  L.  W.  WILSON,  PH.D., 

OF  TIIE  PHILADELPHIA  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

Facts.  — The  best  advice  that  can  be  given  on  the  subject 
of  house  cleaning  is  "Don't,"  or,  if  you  must,  then  clean 
twice,  once  in  the  spring  and  again  in  the  fall. 

The  annual  spring  cleaning  not  only  upsets  both  the 
cleaners  and  the  cleaned,  but,  occurring  just  at  the  time 
when  insects  are  laying  their  eggs,  is  apt  to  spread  the 
disease,  rather  than  to  cure  it.  By  waiting  until  mid- 
summer, more  will  be  accomplished,  even  if  no  better 
methods  are  employed. 

The  chief  advantage  of  house  cleaning  lies  in  the  fact 
that  at  this  time  the  year's  accumulations  are  looked  over, 
and  many  of  them  rejected.  To  leave  woodwork  and 
floors  and  closets  for  a  yearly  cleaning,  as  many  people  do, 
is  inexcusable.  Once  a  week  in  dusty  regions,  or,  perhaps, 
once  a  month  in  the  clean  country  or  seashore,  is  little 
enough. 

In  general  the  same  methods  should  be  pursued  in  cleaning 
at  house  cleaning  time  as  in  the  weekly  cleaning.  For  this 
see  the  chapter  on  the  Dining  Koom,  and  the  section  on 
cleaning  in  the  chapter  on  the  Kitchen.  In  addition  to  this, 
remember  that  all  closets  must  be  cleaned  in  connection 
with  rooms  to  which  they  belong,  but  before  that  room  is 
touched. 


HOUSE   CLEANING  363 

If  there  are  carpets,  each  must  be  taken  up,  and  either 
sent  to  a  carpet  cleaning  establishment,  or  else,  one  at  a 
time,  taken  into  the  yard,  beaten,  sprayed  with  benzine,  and 
allowed  to  air  for  several  hours. 

In  the  meantime,  the  room  must  be  thoroughly  swept  and 
dusted.  If  there  are  cracks  in  the  floor,  or  at  the  junction 
of  the  baseboard  and  floor,  clean  them  out,  pour  benzine 
into  them,  and  later  fill  them  with  liquid  plaster  of  Paris. 

Shake  thoroughly  in  the  yard  all  hangings.  Put  these 
away,  rough  drying  any  soiled  wash  curtains.  Cover  the 
pictures  with  netting,  and  the  cleaned  furniture  with  linen. 

Method.  —  Make  this  season  of  the  year  the  occasion  to 
review  the  whole  subject  of  cleaning.  Since  they  have 
already  had  demonstrations  of  the  principles  involved,  this 
will  be  most  satisfactorily  done  in  a  series  of  oral  language 
lessons.  For  practical  work  let  them  consider  the  problem 
of  effectively  cleaning  the  schoolroom.  Make  a  list  of  what 
is  to  be  done,  and  the  order  of  doing.  Let  the  children 
themselves  choose  a  leader,  who  shall  have  absolute  power 
to  carry  the  cleaning  through. 


JUNE 


MENDING  AND   SEWING 

BY  JULIA  K.  McDOUGALL 

SUPERVISOR  OF  CLASSES  IN  DOMESTIC  ART,  PRATT  INSTITUTE 


CHAPTER   XV 

MENDING 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Needlework,  Knitting,  and  Cutting  Out,  Elizabeth  Rosevear ;  House- 
hold Sewing  with  Home  Dressmaking,  Bertha  Banner ;  Needlework 
for  Student  Teachers,  Amy  K.  Smith;  Progressive  Lessons  in  the 
Art  and  Practice  of  Needlework,  C.  F.  Johnson;  Illustrated  Sewing 
Primer,  L. .  J.  Kirkwood ;  Handbook  for  Sewing-School  Teachers, 
Whittaker;  About  Needles,  L.  T.  Robinson. 

Chautauquan,  vol.  20,  p.  213 ;  Good  Words,  vol.  8,  p.  417  ;  London 
Society,  vol.  15,  p.  75 ;  Atlantic,  vol.  19,  p.  527 ;  Belgravia,  vol.  23, 
p.  470;  Galaxy,  vol.  4,  p.  471;  Chambers's  Journal,  vol.  34,  p.  354; 

All  the  Year  Round,  vol.  21,  p.  394 ;  Leisure  Hour,  vol.  10,  p.  428. 

> 

THE  lessons  as  here  outlined  are  supposed  to  give  the 
child  a  slight  insight  into  the  art  of  mending,  so  that  she 
may  be  able  to  practically  apply  it  later  at  home. 

The  study  of  the  history  of  the  materials  used  will 
be  found  to  enhance  the  interest  of  the  child  in  her 
work,  at  the  same  time  adding  wonderfully  to  her  fund  of 
knowledge. 

The  one  suggestion  to  be  made  to  the  teacher  is  to  make 
the  work  practical  as  well  as  educational.  This  can  be 
done  by  applying  it  always  to  the  home  needs,  and  illus- 
trating the  point  at  the  same  time. 

In  presenting  a  lesson  to  a  class,  the  demonstration 
frame  in  many  cases  is  most  valuable,  and  should  be  used, 
if  possible. 

367 


368  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


HISTORY  OF  SEWING 

Sewing  has  existed  in  every  state  of  society.  At  first 
thorns  were  used  as  needles,  or  fibres  of  plants,  to  bind  the 
foliage,  used  as  covering,  together.  Later,  as  garments  were 
made  of  skin  before  woven  cloth  was  manufactured,  some 
nations  used  small  bones  of  fish  or  animals,  sharpened  at 
the  end,  as  needles,  and  twisted  sinews  for  thread. 

The  Egyptians  were  the  first  to  manufacture  cotton  cloth, 
and  the  garments  found  in  the  tombs  show  that  at  an  early 
period  they  were  expert  with  their  needle  in  a  primitive 
way,  both  in  sewing  and  embroidery. 

Five  thousand  years  ago  the  Egyptians  used  needles  made 
of  wood.  Pins  were  first  made  of  ivory,  afterward  of  box- 
wood, bone,  and  some  few  of  silver.  In  1543  the  manufac- 
ture of  brass  pins  was  begun,  and  at  the  present  time  the 
English  pins  rank  the  highest  in  the  market. 

Needles  were  first  made  in  England  by  a  native  of  India, 
in  1545,  but  the  art  was  lost  at  his  death.  It  was  after- 
wards recovered  by  Christopher  Greening,  in  1560. 

The  women  of  Greenland  sew  very  well,  using  sinews  of 
seal,  whales,  and  reindeer  for  thread,  which  the  girls  are 
taught  to  prepare  at  an  early  age. 

The  women  of  Corea  sew  neatly,  but  very  deliberately. 
The  French,  as  a  nation,  excel  in  their  fine  hand  needle- 
work. The  children  are  taught  to  sew  when  very  young, 
and  in  the  schools  sewing  is  made  part  of  their  education. 

In  Switzerland  needlework,  mending,  etc.,  has  been  taught 
the  girls  in  the  schools  for  many  years.  The  Japanese 
and  the  Persians  are  noted  rather  as  embroiderers  than 
sewers,  the  work  being  done  more  often  by  the  men  than 
the  women. 

Naturally  the  sewing  done  at  first  was  primitive,  and  the 
garments  made  were  very  simple ;  but  as  tiine  advanced. 


MENDING  369 

almost  every  nation  improved  in  sewing  and  garment  cut- 
ting, and  also  in  embroidery,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  use  of  the  needle  in  convents  and 
schools  was  carried  to  great  perfection. 

Hand  sewing  continued  to  be  the  only  means  of  sewing 
until  1830,  when  Bartholemy  Thimonier  of  France  invented 
the  first  sewing-machine.  This,  of  course,  was  a  very  simple 
affair,  and  was  followed  by  a  double  thread,  or  lockstitch, 
machine,  invented  by  Walter  Hunt  of  New  York  in  1832. 
In  1844  Ellas  Howe  of  Massachusetts  improved  upon  those 
already  invented,  and  the  Singer  sewing-machine  was  first 
used  in  1851.  These,  as  is  well  known,  have  been  improved 
upon  by  many  others,  until  it  would  seem  perfection  had 
almost  been  reached. 

Sewing  has  been  introduced  as  part  of  a  child's  education 
in  most  of  the  public  schools  of  America  in  the  past  ten  or 
twelve  years,  and  will  soon,  it  is  hoped,  become  universal. 


STUDY  OF  MATERIAL 

•Wool.  —  Wool,  in  its  natural  state,  is  a  dirty  white,  yellow, 
or  brown  in  color,  and  is  obtained  from  the  sheep.  The 
sheep  are  shorn  once  a  year,  generally  in  April  or  May,  the 
best  wool  coming  from  the  shoulders,  lower  part  of  the  neck, 
and  the  back. 

When  seen  through  a  microscope,  a  fibre  of  wool  is  com- 
posed of  rings,  which  stand  out  like  scales  on  a  fish,  and  it 
is  this  property  which  makes  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth  feel 
rough  to  the  touch  when  passing  over  it  in  one  direction,  but 
not  in  another.  Woollens  and  worsteds  are  very  much  alike, 
but  it  may  be  easy  to  remember  that  long-fibred  wool,  when 
spun  and  woven,  produces  worsteds,  while  short-fibred  wool, 
spun  and  more  closely  woven,  makes  the  wools,  though  it  is 
2s 


370  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

now  hard  to  distinguish  the  difference,  owing  to  the  great 
improvement  of  the  machinery  used  in  the  manufacture. 

The  first  process  in  the  preparation  of  wool  for  weaving 
is  the  washing.  This  is  done  by  a  machine  which  opens  out 
the  matted  wool  by  means  of  rakes,  at  the  same  time  wash- 
ing it  through  several  waters  on  a  series  of  tables. 

The  next  step  is  the  bleaching  of  the  wool,  which  is  not 
difficult,  and  far  less  laborious  than  the  bleaching  of  cotton 
or  linen.  If  the  wool  is  to  be  dyed  a  dark  color  it  is  not 
bleached. 

The  use  of  wool  for  spinning  and  weaving  is  of  so  great 
an  antiquity  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  when  it  originated, 
but  it  is  certain  that  wool  was  in  use  long  before  vegetable 
fibre  was  employed. 

Our  greatest  supplies  of  wool  come  from  California  and 
Australia.  London  and  Boston  are  the  greatest  wool  mar- 
kets in  the  world. 

Cotton.  — Most  of  the  cotton  used  in  the  world  is  raised  in 
the  United  States,  and  the  two  principal  varieties  are,  short 
staple  cotton,  or  cotton  having  short  fibres,  and  long  staple 
cotton,  having  long  fibres.  The  Sea  Island  cotton,  which 
has  the  longest  fibres,  and  is  the  best,  is  almost  extinct. 

Cotton  grows  in  warm  climates,  and  the  seed  is  sown  in 
March  or  April,  and  early  in  June  the  plant  begins  to  bloom. 
The  blossom  resembles  the  hollyhock,  and  changes  its  color 
in  twenty-four  hours  from  pale  straw  color  to  a  clear  pink. 
After  the  flowers  fall  the  pods,  or  bolls,  grow  rapidly,  and 
burst  open  when  ripe,  showing  the  fleecy  cotton  ready  for 
picking. 

After  the  cotton  is  gathered  it  is  exposed  to  the  sun  until 
quite  dry,  and  the  seeds  are  separated  from  the  fibres  of  the 
cotton.  The  fibres  are  next  separated  from  each  other,  and 
freed  from  dust  as  nearly  as  possible. 

It  is  now  in  the  form  of  a  very  clean,  light,  downy  sub- 


MENDING  371 

stance,  but  the  fibre  is  not  parallel.  To  effect  this  it  is 
carded  or  combed  straight.  After  the  carding  the  cotton 
leaves  the  carding  engine  in  a  small,  delicate  roll  called  a 
"sliver,  which  has  to  be  changed  into  rovings,"  or  still 
more  delicate  threads,  which  are  so  thin  that  they  have  a 
slight  twist  given  them,  which  converts  them  into  a  loose 
kind  of  spongy  thread,  which  is  spun  into  yarn.  In  making 
thread  the  yarn  is  doubled  and  twisted  more  than  for  weav- 
ing into  clofti,  as  greater  strength  is  required.  It  is  washed.  s 
bleached,  dyed,  and  reeled  on  to  bobbins,  and  finally  spooled. 
In  spooling,  after  the  machine  tender  has  set  the  spool  on 
the  spindle,  and  attached  the  end  of  the  thread  from  the 
bobbin,  the  machine  does  the  rest.  It  runs  on  evenly,  just 
two  hundred  yards,  and  at  the  right  time  and  place  cuts  the 
fine  slit  in  the  edge  of  the  spool,  fastens  the  thread  in  it, 
cuts  it  off,  and  drops  it  in  a  tray,  after  which  the  spools  are 
labelled  and  packed. 

When  the  yarn  is  to  be  woven  into  cotton  cloth,  there  are 
many  intermediate  steps  to  be  taken  after  the  spinning  is 
completed,  such  as  dressing,  beaming,  winding,  and  warping. 

Besides  the  dressing,  there  are  many  curious  machines 
employed  to  prepare  the  yarn  for  the  loom,  and  many  of 
these  operations  are  nearly  alike  in  all  the  manufacture  of 
textiles,  whether  cotton,  wool,  silk,  or  linen. 

The  yarn  for  the  warp  and  woof  threads  are  prepared  on 
different  machines,  the  warp  thread  being  made  the  stronger, 
as  it  is  subject  to  a  greater  strain.- 

White  cotton  cloth  is  bleached  after  weaving. 

Flax.  —  The  linen  cloth  and  linen,  thread  we  have  is  made 
from  flax,  which  in  turn  is  gotten  from  the  flax  plant. 

This  plant  is  from  twenty  to  forty  inches  high,  with  long, 
narrow  leaves  branching  only  at  the  top,  with  bright  blue 
flowers.  The  seeds  of  the  flax  are  known  as  linseed,  and 
are  much  used  for  oil. 


372  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

The  stalks  are  to  be  pulled  before  the  capsules  are  quite 
ripe,  when  the  stalks  of  the  plant  have  become  yellow,  and 
are  about  two-thirds  their  height.  The  stalks  are  pulled 
from  the  roots,  not  cut ;  the  seeds  are  then  separated  from 
the  stalks,  and  the  stalks  are  sunk  in  water  and  kept  down 
by  weights,  as  nothing  is  lighter  than  flax,  until  the  fibre, 
which  is  to  be  used,  is  partly  separated  from  the  woody 
core.  It  is  then  taken  out,  and  by  a  method  known  as 
scutching  the  fibre  is  entirely  freed. 

The  spinning  and  weaving  is  the  same  as  for  cotton. 

Needles.  —  The  needle,  though  a  simple  instrument,  has, 
in  its  manufacture,  to  pass  through  the  hands  of  nearly  a 
hundred  workmen.  It  is  made  from  steel  wire,  and  the 
processes  through  which  it  has  to  pass  are  as  follows : 
1st,  cutting  the  wire ;  2d,  straightening ;  3d,  pointing ;  4th, 
eying;  5th,  hardening;  6th,  cleaning;  7th,  counting  and 
packing. 

In  the  first  step,  or  the  cutting  of  the  wire,  the  wire  is  cut 
in  pieces  the  length  of  two  needles,  wires  of  equal  diameters 
being  selected,  so  the  needles  will  be  all  of  one  size.  These 
lengths,  having  been  cut  from  coils  of  wire,  are,  of  course, 
all  more  or  less  bent,  and  have  to  be  straightened,  which  is 
the  second  step.  This  is  done  by  enclosing  them  within  two 
rings,  which  are  heated  to  redness.  The  edges  of  the  rings 
are  inserted  in  what  is  called  a  smooth  file,  and  the  rings 
held  in  this  are  rolled  backward  and  forward  until,  by  their 
friction  against  each  other,  the  wires  become  perfectly 
straight. 

They  are  then  pointed  at  each  end  in  a  pointing  machine, 
which  simply  requires  the  feeding  of  the  wires  in  a  little 
trough.  In  their  almost  momentary  stay  in  the  machine, 
during  which  they  are  made  to  rotate  on  a  centre-hollowed 
stone,  they  are  pointed  precisely  as  if  done  by  hand. 

We  now  have  a  wire  pointed  at  each  end,  or  two  needles 


MENDING  373 

joined  together,  ready  for  the  eyes,  or  holes  for  the  thread. 
The  eyes  are  now  punched  in  by  a  stamping  machine,  and 
the  needles  are  broken  in  two. 

They  are  next  hardened  by  being  brought  to  a  red  heat 
and  then  placed  in  cold  water  or  oil,  heated  again,  and  grad- 
ually cooled.  When  they  change  to  a  blue  color  they  are 
properly  tempered.  ^ 

As  the  needles  are  now  in  a  very  dirty  state,  they  are 
cleaned  by4  being  put  in  heaps  in  canvas,  and  rolled  into 
bundles,  and  put  in  a  scouring  machine  with  soft  soap, 
emery,  and  oil,  where  they  are  rolled  back  and  forth  for 
fifty  or  sixty  hours. 

When  taken  out  they  are  sorted,  so  as  to  have  the  heads 
all  one  way.  This  is  done  by  girls,  who  wrap  wash  leather 
around  the  fore  fingers  of  their  hands,  and,  pressing  them 
against  the  pile  of  needles,  catch  all  the  points. 

As  a  last  touch,  the  needles  are  rubbed  between  chamois 
leather  to  remove  any  stains  which  may  have  been  left,  and 
are  then  ready  to  pack. 

They  are  counted,  and  put  into  papers  chemically  pre- 
pared, which  prevents  the  needles  from  rusting.  An  expert 
can  count  and  paper  three  thousand  needles  in  an  hour. 

The  largest  needle  factory  is  in  Eedditch,  England. 

The  Thimble.  —  Thimbles  are  made  of  metals,  such  as  gold, 
silver,  steel,  brass,  aluminum,  and  celluloid. 

The  metal  from  which  the  thimble  is  to  be  made  is  rolled 
in  thin  sheets,  and  cut  into  round  disks,  which  are  put  upon 
a  die,  and  made  to  take  the  shape  of  a  thimble.  The  edge  is 
then  turned  up,  and  the  small  indentations  are  made  by 
machinery  upon  the  top  and  halfway  down  the  sides,  which 
catch  the  needle  when  used  in  sewing.  They  are  tempered 
by  heating  and  cooling,  very  much  as  the  needles  are.  Most 
of  the  ornamentation  upon  common  thimbles  is  done  by 
machinery,  though  the  finer  thimbles  are  hand  engraven. 


374  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Some  thimbles  are  made  without  a  top,  and  are  used 
chiefly  by  tailors ;  while  sailors  use  only  a  broad  ring,  with 
flat  indentations  on  one  side,  and  wear  it  on  the  thumb, 
instead  of  the  middle  finger. 

LESSON  I 
Facts 

Correct  Position.  —  The  child  should  sit  erect  and  well 
back  in  the  chair,  and  hold  her  work  up  but  not  too  near 
the  eyes. 

Threading  the  Needle.  —  (1)  Measure  the  length  of  thread 
from  shoulder  to  shoulder.  (2)  Break  the  thread  from  the 
spool.  (3)  Hold  the  needle,  a  little  below  the  eye,  between 
the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  left  hand.  (4)  Hold  the 
thread  in  the  right  hand  and  bring  the  hands  together, 
thumbs  touching,  at  the  same  time  pulling  the  thread 
through  the  eye  of  the  needle. 

Making  a  Knot.  —  Twist  the  end  of  the  thread  once  and  a 
half  times  around  the  top  of  the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand, 
roll  the  end  under  with  the  thumb,  and  secure  the  knot  by 
pulling  it  down  with  the  thumb  nail. 

Taking  a  Stitch.  —  Hold  the  needle  up  to  the  thimble,  — 
make  a  stitch.  Draw  the  thread  through  with  the  thread 
over  the  little  finger. 

Holding  Scissors.  —  Scissors  should  be  held  in  the  right 
hand  with  thumb  and  middle  finger  through  the  handles 
and  pointed  blade  down.  In  cutting  straight  lines,  the 
blades  should  be  opened  wide  and  brought  together  with 
one  movement  until  the  tips  almost  meet,  and  in  repeating 
the  movement  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  line  contin- 
uous and  not  jagged. 

Method.  —  For  these  lessons  in  mending,  each  child  will 
need  a  bag  in  which  to  keep  her  utensils  and  her  work.  It 


MENDING  375 

is  not  a  bad  plan  to  show  them  one  of  a  suitable  size  and, 
giving  them  the  material,  let  each  make  her  own  before  the 
lessons  begin.  For,  after  all,  experience  is  an  excellent 
teacher,  and  having  made  an  effort,  they  will  be  the  readier 
to  learn  a  "  better  way." 

In  the  bag  they  will  need  a  small  needle  case,  a  pin- 
cushion, scissors,  thimble,  and  thread. 

All  the  work  outlined  in  this  lesson  should  be  done  as 
a  drill,  that  is  to  say  by  count.  The  teacher,  of  course, 
increases  the  rapidity  of  the  count  as  they  become  more 
expert. 

Drill  for  opening  Bags 

1.  Open  bag. 

2.  Take  out  work. 

3.  Arrange  it  on  the  desk. 

Drill  for  closing  Bags 

1.  Put  away  the  needle. 

2.  Fold  up  the  work. 

3.  Put  it  away  in  the  bag. 

4.  Hold  up  bag. 

5.  Collect. 


Drill  for  threading  the  Needle 

1.  Measure  the  thread. 

2.  Break  it  from  the  spool. 

3.  Hold  needle  in  the  left  hand. 

4.  Hold  thread  in  the  right  hand. 

5.  Bring  the  hands  together. 

6.  Pull  the  thread  through  and  over. 

7.  Knot. 


376 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Drill  for  taking  a  Stitch 

1.  Hold  the  needle  up  to  the  thimble. 

2.  Make  a  stitch. 

3.  Draw  the  thread  through. 


LESSON  II 
Basting 

Materials.  —  Muslin,  70  cotton,  No.  9  needles. 
Facts.  —  Uneven  basting  (111.  A)  ;  even  basting  (111.  B). 
These   two   drawings   show   plainly  what  is   meant  by 
basting,  and  also  the  two  kinds.      In  uneven  basting  the 

space        stitch 


ILLUSTRATION  .4.  — UNEVEN  BASTING 


back  stitch 


1st! 
stitch 
knot 


space    stitch 


ILLUSTRATION  B.—  EVEN  BASTING 


back  stitch 


i 
i 

i 

ist! 

stitch 
knot 


stitches  are  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  and  the  space 
one-eighth  of  an  inch.  In  even  basting  both  the  stitch  and 
the  space  are  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long. 


MENDING  377 

In  teaching  this  and  all  succeeding  lessons,  provide  the 
class  with  samples.  This  should  be  individual,  if  possible. 
This  means  a  good  deal  of  labor,  but  each  might  be  used 
many  times. 

By  all  means  use  the  blackboard. 

A  large  piece  of  material  and  worsted  of  a  contrasting 
color  will  demonstrate  all  the  stitches. 

Let  the  children  themselves  discover  the  knot,  the  short 
stitch  immediately  following  the  knot,  the  long  stitches  and 
short  spaces  (how  long?),  and  the  back  stitch  at  the  end. 
What  is  the  advantage  of  a  very  short  stitch  at  the  begin- 
ning ?  Why  is  it  finished  with  a  back  stitch  ? 

Show  them  with  the  worsted  and  cloth  how  to  take  each 
of  these  stitches.  Show  them  the  proper  method  of  holding 
the  muslin  (over  the  first  two  fingers  of  the  left  hand). 
Let  them  baste. 

Show  them  samples  of  even  basting.  Let  them  compare 
the  two.  What  is  the  difference  ?  What  is  the  advantage 
of  even  basting  ?  (Greater  security.)  Of  uneven  basting  ? 
(Greater  speed.) 

Give  them  the  opportunity  to  practise. 


LESSON  III 
Hemming 

Facts.  —  For  hemming,  the  cloth  is  folded  twice,  the 
width  of  each  turn  depending  upon  the  material  and  the  ob- 
ject of  the  hem.  For  practice  hemming  in  school,  the 
first  turn  should  be  one-quarter  inch  and  the  second  one 
inch.  '  The  cloth  should  be  turned  and  then  carefully 
basted  with  the  stitches  close  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  fold. 
The  needle  is  pushed  through  the  fold  of  the  hem,  slanting 
toward  the  left.  Draw  the  needle  through,  leaving  about 


OF   THK 


378 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


one-half  inch  of  the  thread  still  through  the  muslin  (111.  C). 
The  second  and  third  stitches,  also,  are  taken  only  through 
the  fold  of  the  hem,  but  the  needle  slants  toward  the  right 
(111.  D).  All  the  remaining  stitches  are  taken  through  the 
three  thicknesses  of  the  material  with  the  needle  slanting 
toward  the  right.  These  stitches  must  be  perfectly  even. 


ILLUSTRATION  C 


The  muslin  should  be  held  over  the  first  finger  of  the  left 
hand  with  the  needle  slanting  toward  the  thumb  of  the  left 
hand. 

Hemming  is  ended  by  taking  three  little  stitches  one 
over  the  other. 


MENDING  379 

If  the  thread  breaks  in  hemming,  cut  it  off  about  one-half 
inch  from  the  last  stitch  taken.  Then  commence  with  a 
new  thread  as  at  first. 

Method. — As  before  provided,  abundant  samples,  black- 
board drawings,  and  worsted  demonstrations. 

Teach  the  turning  first  with  paper.  This  is  not  only 
easier  for  them,  but  it  gives  them  the  necessary  practice 


ILLUSTRATION  D 


without  soiling  the  material.     Kequire   them  to  test  the 
widths  with  a  ruler. 

When  the  turn  has  been  made  with  the  material,  let  them 
baste  it  neatly,  first  studying  a  basted  (but  unhemmed) 
sample. 


380 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Examine  the  hemmed  sample.  In  this  the  stitches 
should  be  very  large  and  made  with  thread  of  a  contrasting 
color.  It  is  an  advantage  to  have  the  material  thin,  that 
they  may  hold  it  to  the  light,  thus  gaining  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  stitch.  Show  them  how  to  begin  the 
hemming.  Let  them  practise. 

Teach  the  mending  of  the  thread. 


LESSON  IV 
Hemmed  Patch 


Facts.  —  Cutting  paper  model  for  hemmed  patch.     Cut  a 
square  of  paper  41  inches  to  represent  garment  to  be  patched. 


ILLUSTRATION  E 


Cut  paper  4J  by  3|  inches  to  represent  patch  to  be  put  on. 
Draw  on  both  papers  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  at  same 
distance  apart  to  represent  design  to  be  matched.  Fold  the 


MENDING 


381 


square  twice  diagonally  and  cut  out  small  hole  in  centre. 
Measure  in  one  inch  from  edge  of  square  on  all  four  sides. 
Fold  patch  to  fit,  taking  care  to  match  stripes,  and  pin  it  on 
the  wrong  side. 

Cutting  Cloth  for  Hemmed  Patch  and  Basting  it  Together ; 
Hemming  Begun.  —  Cut  the  cloth  the  same  as  paper  model 


ILLUSTRATION  F 

and  baste  the  patch  on  the  wrong  side,  putting  right  side  of 
patch  to  wrong  side  of  garment,  and  using  an  even  basting 
stitch  one-quarter  inch  long. 

Hem  the  Patch  on.  —  In  hemming,  hold  the  patch  in  the 
left  hand  over  the  first  finger.  In  taking  the  stitch,  have 
the  needle  slant  over  the  middle  of  the  thumb-nail  and 
pointing  toward  the  arm.  In  hemming,  it  is  important  to 


382  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

have  the  stitches  of  a  uniform  size,  twelve  to  fifteen  stitches 
to  an  inch  being  a  good  size  for  beginners.  If  the  material 
is  thin  enough  to  see  through  in  holding  to  the  light,  the 
hemming  stitches  will  look  like  a  row  of  small  tents. 

Method.  —  In  the  teaching  of  the  paper  model  for  hemmed 
patch,  it  is  well  to  cut  a  model  in  front  of  the  class  so  they 
may  thoroughly  understand  it  before  attempting  it  them- 
selves. 

There  is  the  same  necessity  for  abundance  of  demon- 
stration, material,  and  explicit  direction  in  this  as  in  all 
other  lessons. 

Describe  the  reason  and  use  of  patching. 

Follow  the  steps  as  given  in  "  Facts." 

Points  to  be  noted.  —  Have  patch  large  enough  to  cover 
worn  places  as  well  as  hole. 

Be  sure  the  threads  of  garment  and  patch  run  the  same 
way. 

Call  attention  to  corners,  and  show  that  they  should  be 
perfectly  square. 

The  shape  of  the  patch  depends  upon  the  shape  of  the 
worn  place. 

LESSON  V 
Patch  Finished  —  Weaving 

Facts.  —  To  finish  the  patch,  insert  the  scissors  in  the 
hole  in  the  centre  on  the  right  side  and  cut  diagonally  to 
within  one-half  inch  of  hemming  all  from  corners.  Cut  out 
the  triangular  pieces  of  material,  leaving  one-half  inch 
margin  all  around  the  square.  At  each  corner  snip  in  one- 
quarter  inch  and  turn  in  material  as  far  as  cut,  and  baste 
down  and  hem. 

Weaving.  —  Card  3J  by  4JL  inches,  worsted,  two  colors,  and 
worsted  needle.  Measure  in  on  all  four  corners  of  card  three- 


MENDING 


383 


quarters  of  an  inch  and  mark.  On  upper  and  lower  edge  of 
card  make  a  row  of  pencil  dots  directly  Opposite  each  other 
and  prick  through.  Thread  the  worsted  needle  with  the  warp 
thread,  make  knot,  and  bring  the  needle  through  the  first  hole 


r 


<r 


ILLUSTRATION  G 

on  top  from  wrong  side.  Carry  worsted  down  to  hole  directly 
below,  pass  the  needle  through  and  bring  it  back  through 
second  hole,  up  to  top  again,  and  so  on,  until  all  the  warp 
threads  are  in,  and  fasten  on  the  wrong  side. 

Thread  the  needle  with  another  color  for  woof  thread  and 
fill  in,  going  under  first  thread  and  over  second,  etc. ;  the 
woof  thread  passing  around  the  warp  thread  at  the  side 
makes  the  selvage. 


384 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Method. — Explain  the  process  of  weaving  plain  cotton 
cloth. 

Make  thoroughly  clear  the  difference  between  woof  and 
warp  threads. 

Describe  a  bias  and  illustrate  it. 

Have  class  draw  warp  and  woof  threads  on  blackboard. 


LESSON  VI 
Darning 

Darning  on  Stockinet.  —  Stockinet  4  by  2£  inches,  darning 
needle,  darning  cotton. 


ILLUSTRATION  H 


MENDING  385 

Cut  small  hole  in  the  stockinet,  baste  it  on  a  piece  of  stiff 
paper  about  4J  by  3  J  inches  in  size,  being  careful  not  to  stretch 
the  stockinet.  Commence  to  darn  by  putting  in  the  warp 
threads,  beginning  one-quarter  of  an  inch  outside  of  the  hole. 
Take  up  a  small  quantity  of  the  material  on  the  needle,  skip 
the  same  amount,  and  repeat  until  the  line  of  stitches  is  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  beyond  the  hole.  In  going  back,  do  not 
pull  the  thread  through  tightly,  but  leave  a  small  loop  to  allow 
for  shrinkage,  and  follow  the  principles  of  weaving  in  taking, 
alternate  stitches.  Put  the  warp  threads  in,  in  the  form  of 
a  diamond. 

In  going  back  and  forth  over  the  hole  be  particular  to 
catch  all  the  loops  around  the  edge  of  the  hole.  Have  the 
woof  threads  follow  the  shape  of  the  hole,  going  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  outside.  Show  how  the  principles  of  weaving 
may  be  applied  to  darning. 

LESSON  VII 
Darning  (continued) 

Darning  on  Cloth.  —  Cashmere  4  by  2  inches.  In  darning 
on  cloth,  use  ravellings,  if  possible,  to  darn  with;  if  not, 
have  fine  silk  to  match  cloth. 

Make  a  lengthwise  cut  in  cashmere  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  long.  Thread  the  needle,  hold  cut  edges  firmly 
together  with  thumb  and  first  finger  of  left  hand,  and  darn 
back  and  forth  over  cut,  commencing  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
above  and  darning  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch  below  the  cut, 
making  the  darn  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  wide. 

Method.  —  In  giving  this  lesson,  do  not  permit  the  class  to 
work  too  quickly,  as  a  good  result  will  not  be  obtained. 
Care  and  patience  must  be  used.  The  edges  must  not  over- 
lap nor  pull  apart,  and  the  threads  must  run  the  same  as  the 
material  so  that  the  stitches  will  not  show. 

Show  the  difference  between  an  overhand  and  a  hemmed 
2c 


386 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


patch,  tell  which  is  stronger,  which  shows  the  least  and 
why,  and  where  used. 

Explain  that  in  patching  a  garment  the  square  would 
have  to  be  outlined  with  chalk  or  basting  thread,  as  it  could 
not  be  creased.  Give  the  lesson  as  outlined. 


LESSON  VIII 
Overhand  Patch 

Overhand  Patch.  — Figured  percale  or  gingham,  70  cotton, 
No.  9  needle. 

Cut  two  squares  of  material  5J  inches,  one  to  represent 


ILLUSTRATION  I 


the  garment,  the  other  the  patch.  In  the  piece  that  repre- 
sents the  garment,  cut  a  small  hole  in  the  centre,  fold 
the  square  twice  diagonally  and  crease,  open  the  square 
and  cut  through  the  creased  lines  to  within  1J  inches  of 


MENDING 


387 


the  corners.     Turn  the  triangles  thus  made  back  to  wrong 
side.     This  makes  the  frame. 

Place  the  square  for  the  patch  on  the  table  right  side  up. 
Place  frame  over  the  patch  matching  the  pattern  exactly. 
Pin  in  place.  Turn  in  patch  at  line  of  matching  on  upper 
side.  Take  out  pins  and  put  right  side  of  garment  to  right 
side  of  patch  at  upper  edge  of  patch  and  baste  turned-in 
edges  together. 

LESSON  IX 

Overhand  Patch  (continued) 

Overhanding.  —  Do  not  make  a  knot  in  the  thread.  Put 
the  needle  straight  through  both  edges,  pointing  it  toward 
the  chest;  draw  the  thread  almost  through,  leaving  about 


\ 


S!/ 


ILLUSTRATION 


388 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


one-quarter  of  an  inch ;  turn  this  end  toward  the  left  on  the 
top  of  the  seam  where  it  will  be  held  down  by  the  first 
three  stitches.  Have  the  stitches  rather  close  together,  and 
in  taking  stitch  always  be  sure  to  point  the  needle  cor- 
rectly. In  ending,  take  three  stitches  back  over  last 
three,  making  cross  stitches.  Crease,  baste,  and  overhand 
each  remaining  side  by  itself.  When  overhanding  is  fin- 
ished, cut  off  all  edges  of  seams  to  within  one-quarter  inch 
in  width.  Finish  corners  like  illustration. 

Show  the  difference  between  an  overhand  and  a  hemmed 
patch,  tell  which  is  stronger,  which  shows  the  least  and 
why,  and  where  used. 

Explain  that  in  patching  a  garment  the  square  would 
have  to  be  outlined  with  chalk  or  basting  thread,  as  it  could 
not  be  creased. 

Give  the  lessons  as  outlined. 


LESSON  X 
Sewing  on  Buttons 

A  button  with  holes  must  be  sewed  on  firmly  but  a  little 
loosely.  Mark  the  place  for  the  button;  have  a  strong 
thread ;  take  a  small  stitch,  leaving  knot 
on  right  side ;  put  needle  through  hole 
No.  1  of  button,  pulling  the  thread 
through ;  place  a  pin  diagonally  across 
the  button  over  holes  2  and  3  and  sew 
back  and  forth  five  times  through  holes 
1  and  4  (111.  K) ;  twist  the  pin  so 
that  it  lies  over  holes  1  and  4  and 
sew  five  times  through  holes  2  and  3 ; 
remove  the  pin  and  pull  the  button  up  to  the  top  of  thread ; 
bring  the  needle  to  wrong  side  of  button  and  wind  several 
times  around  threads  and  fasten  on  the  wrong  side. 


ILLUSTRATION  K 


MENDING  389 

Buttons  with  two  holes  are  sewed  on  in  the  same  way 
and  buttons  with  shanks  or  hooks,  as  shoe  buttons,  should 
be  sewed  on  with  the  stitches  taken  parallel  with  the  edge. 

Method.  —  Have  folded  strips  of  cloth  for  the  children 
to  sew  their  buttons  on,  and  demonstrate  the  lesson  before 
the  class  with  large  piece  of  cloth  and  large  buttons  made 
of  pasteboard  so  all  can  see. 

LESSON  XI 
Mending  Gloves 

Facts.  —  This  is  merely  fine  overseaming  or  overhanding. 
For  preliminary  work  repeat  overhanding,  taking  care  to 
have  the  stitches  the  same  size. 

Method. — When  the  children  have  had  sufficient  practice 
in  overhanding,  distribute  among  them  gloves  or  fingers  of 
gloves.  Let  them  examine  the  overhanding.  How  does  it 
differ  from  your  work  ?  Why  ? 

What  tools  will  you  need  for  repairing  gloves  ?  (No.  10 
needle,  silk.)  Why  ? 

Let  them  bring  gloves  from  home  to  be  repaired.  Collect 
old  gloves  for  those  who  do  not  bring  material  from  home. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

HOW  TO  TURN  AN  ORDINARY  SCHOOLROOM  INTO 
A  WORKSHOP  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  HOUSEHOLD 
ARTS 

BY  M.  ISABELLA  McNEAR 

GRADUATE  OF  THE  BOSTON  NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  ;  SPECIAL.  STUDENT 
OF  THE  MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY,  AND 
COLUMBIA  COLLEGE  ;  FORMERLY  TEACHER  IN  THE  TRAINING  SCHOOL,  KNOXVILLE, 
TENN.;  THE  SARGENT  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL,  MATTEAWAN,  N.Y. ;  PRINCIPAL  OF  THE 
TRINITY  PARISH  COOKING-SCHOOL,  NEW  YORK  CITY  ;  AND  NOW  IN  CHARGE  OF 
DOMESTIC  SCIENCE,  HAMPTON  INSTITUTE,  VA. 

How  to  turn  an  Ordinary  Schoolroom  into  a  Workshop  for 
the  Study  of  Household  Arts.  —  It  will  be  a  great  help  to  the 
pupils  as  a  lesson  in  thrift  and  order,  and  to  the  teacher 
financially,  if  she  can  get  them  to  feel  that  the  small  apart- 
ment devoted  to  the  study  of  household  arts  belongs  to 
them  while  in  it,  and  that  they  must  do  their  part  toward 
furnishing  and  keeping  it  clean.  They  can  also  help  in 
selecting  the  materials  after  a  previous  discussion  with  the 
teacher  about  the  color,  design,  usefulness,  etc. 

Subdivision  of  the  Schoolroom  into  Other  Rooms.  —  Having 
selected  the  room  and  decided  how  much  money  and  help  is 
available,  the  next  thing  to  consider  is  the  room  itself: 
how  large,  how  light,  how  many  windows  and  doors,  and 
how  high  the  windows  are ;  for  on  these  things  will  largely 
depend  the  subdivision  of  the  room  into  other  rooms.  For 
example :  if  there  is  only  one  door,  it  would  seem  to  be  best 
for  it  to  open  into  the  parlor,  having  the  dining  room  and 
bedroom  next  to  the  parlor  on  each  side.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  also  necessary  to  have  the  lightest  rooms  for  the 

390 


TO   TURN   A   SCHOOLROOM   INTO   A   WORKSHOP      391 

kitchen  and  laundry.  It  is  especially  necessary  to  have 
plenty  of  light  in  the  latter.  As  the  ordinary  schoolroom 
has  from  four  to  six  windows  in  it,  —  and  these  on  two 
sides,  —  there  must  be  one  room,  and  in  this  case  it  ought 
to  be  the  parlor,  without  a  window. 


BED  ROO.M 


PARLOR 


KITCHEN 

AND 
LAUNDRY 


DINING  ROO.M 


301ft- 

HALL 

DIAGRAM  I 


The  next  thing  to  consider  is  the  size  of  the  room,  and 
into  how  many  compartments  it  can  be  divided,  and  by 
what  means. 

If  it  is  a  small  room  about  25  by  30  ft.,  and  divided 
into  four  equal  parts,  each  part  would  be  about  121  by 
15  ft.  This  would  give  four  fair  sized  rooms  to  furnish. 
But  they  would  be  too  small  for  class  work  unless  the 


392 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


duties  of  the  class  be  divided  among  the  pupils,  so  that  they 
can  be  scattered  through  the  different  compartments  as  in 
any  ordinary  house. 

The  laundry  work  could  be  taught  in  the  kitchen.  This 
might  be  a  better  plan  than  having  a  laundry,  as  the  parents 
of  most  of  the  children  do  their  washing,  ironing,  and  cook- 


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WINDOWS 

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BED  ROOM 

&            KITCHEN            «= 

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LAUNDRY 

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34ft. 

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42 

1 

PARLOR                      2 

DINING  ROOM 

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5 

4 

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DIAGRAM  II 

ing  in  one  room.  Yet  it  will  be  very  inconvenient  to  teach 
a  class  to  wash,  iron,  and  cook  under  such  circumstances. 

Such  being  the  case,  one  corner  of  the  parlor  could  be 
screened  off  with  an  ordinary  small  screen.  Behind  this 
screen  could  be  placed  a  dining-room  table  and  chairs.  This 
would  give  an  extra  room  for  the  laundry. 

If  it  is  a  larger  room,  or  about  40  by  30  ft.,  which  is  nearer 
to  the  ordinary  sized  schoolroom,  it  could  be  divided  very 


TO   TURN   A   SCHOOLEOOM   INTO   A   WORKSHOP      393 

easily  into  five  small  rooms.  The  parlor  and  dining  room 
could  be  15  by  20  ft.,  and  enough,  say  5  ft.,  taken  off  the  bed- 
room to  give  extra  room  to  the  kitchen ;  so  that  the  latter 
might  be  subdivided  into  kitchen  and  laundry.  If  the 
front  of  the  room  is  40  ft.,  and  the  sides  30,  this  divison 
would  give  a  bedroom  15  by  15  ft.,  kitchen  15  by  15  ft.,  and 
a  laundry  10  by  15  ft.,  which  is  quite  large  enough  providing 
the  classes  are  taught  systematically.  If  the  dimensions  of 
the  room  are  30  by  40  ft,,  30  ft.  front,  instead  of  40  by 
30  ft.,  the  three  back  rooms  would  all  be  10  by  20  ft. ;  not 
quite  so  convenient,  but  still  could  be  used  very  well.  As  a 
laundry  should  be  a  very  light  room,  the  rooms  in  the  dia- 
gram have  been  so  arranged  that  the  laundry  is  a  side  room 
with  a  window  on  its  longest  side.  This  arrangement  gives 
a  window  to  all  the  rooms  except  the  parlor. 

Partitions.  —  By  what  means  is  the  room  to  be  divided  ? 
Ordinary  roller  blinds  supported  by  pillars  in  the  room 
would  probably  be  too  expensive ;  as  would  also  be  the  case 
if  Venetian  blinds  were  used.  They  could  not  be  decorated 
as  walls,  and  would  be  hard  to  keep  clean.  Moreover,  if 
they  were  hung  from  the  ceiling  they  would  make  the 
room  too  dark.  Curtains  are  not  to  be  considered  if  it  is 
possible  to  get  anything  else.  Not  only  are  they  too  expen- 
sive, but  become  easily  soiled.  This  necessitates  the  ex- 
pense of  having  them  washed.  Besides,  they  collect  and 
hold  dust,  giving  a  room  eventually  a  dusty  odor. 

Partitions:  Matched  Boards. — The  best  and  perhaps  the 
cheapest  partition  could  be  made  of  matched  boards  stained 
and  varnished  to  match  the  other  wood  in  the  room.  It 
should  be  fastened  to  the  floor,  and,  by  cross  pieces  at  the 
top,  to  the  wall  to  make  it  stand  firmly.  It  should  not  be 
more  than  7  ft.  high.  This  would  give  a  wall  a  little  higher 
than  a  tall  person,  and  yet  allow  room  for  light  and  circula- 
tion of  air  over  the  screens  to  the  compartments  having  no 


394  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

window.  A  partition  6  ft.  high  would  be  over  an  ordinary 
person's  head,  and  allow  more  space  for  air  and  light. 

The  partition  should  not  extend  to  the  wall;  but  there 
should  be  allowed  3  ft.  at  each  end  of  the  screen  for.  a  door- 
way. 

Some  cheap,  pretty  figured  material,  as  cretonne,  could  be 
used  for  portieres,  and  hung  from  the  cross-bar  that  sup- 
ports the  partition. 

Cost :  Matched  Boards.  —  If  the  room  is  30  by  40  ft.,  taking 
off  3  ft.  at  each  end,  there  would  be  two  screens  or  partitions 
24  and  34  ft.  long  and  7  ft.  high.  These  would  cost  about 
$30.  If  an  extra  screen  or  partition  is  put  up  to  divide  the 
laundry  and  kitchen,  it  would  be  an  additional  84  sq.  ft., 
and  would  cost  about  $10  extra. 

Small  shelves,  pictures,  and  looking  glasses  could  be 
hung  on  a  wall  like  this,  which  could  not  be  if  ordinary 
screens  were  used. 

Screens. — Frames  made  of  ordinary  wood,  stained  and 
varnished,  large  enough  to  cover  this  space,  would  cost  from 
$15  to  $20  without  the  cloth.  It  would  require  about  53 
square  yards  of  cloth.  And  this  at  25  cts.  a  yard  would 
cost  $13.25,  bringing  the  cost  of  the  screens  to  that  of  the 
partitions. 

It  seems  hardly  desirable  to  use  cloth  to  cover  so  large  a 
space  in  a  room  where  such  a  variety  of  work  is  being  done ; 
as  it  becomes  soiled  from  the  dust,  and  absorbs  the  kitchen 
and  laundry  odors.  This  would  necessitate  replacing  the 
cloth  at  intervals. 

The  ordinary  folding  clothes  horse  could  be  made  into  a 
screen  by  tacking  on  common  floor  matting.  Either  the 
white  or  figured  could  be  used,  and  it  is  both  durable  and 
clean,  as  it  can  be  washed.  This  would  cost  25  or  30  cts.  a 
yard.  It  would  hardly  pay  to  use  a  cheaper  quality  for 
such  a  large  screen. 


TO   TURN   A   SCHOOLROOM  INTO   A  WORKSHOP      395 

Tea  cloth,  obtained  at  large  tea  houses,  is  very  pretty  and 
artistic ;  as  is  also  burlap,  or  what  is  commonly  known  as 
gunny  cloth,  and  used  for  packing  purposes.  It  is  cheap, 
and,  if  tightly  stretched,  can  be  painted  or  gilded.  Another 
pretty  way  to  make  a  screen  is  to  cover  the  frame  with 
something  that  is  thin  as  cheese  cloth,  and  put  paper  over 
it.  If  a  plain  paper  is  used,  it  can  be  decorated  by  stencil- 
ling and  the  corners  mitred.  A  very  cheap  wall-paper  put 
on  the  wall  with  the  wrong  or  white  side  out  often  gives  a 
pretty  and  artistic  effect.  If  screens  are  used,  they  should 
be  fastened  to  the  floor,  and  to  each  other,  with  brass  or 
iron  brackets  known  in  trade  as  angles  or  knee  irons. 

The  Floor.  —  The  floor  should  be  finished  so  that  it  can 
easily  be  kept  clean. 

Finish  for  an  Old  Floor.  —  A  good  finish  for  an  old  floor 
can  be  obtained  by  either  of  the  following  methods.  First 
wash  the  floor  thoroughly  with  either  strong  soap  or  lye ; 
wash  again  with  slightly  acid  water,  using  either  vinegar  or 
weak  muriatic  acid.  This  will  neutralize  the  soda  and  give 
a  better  finish  to  the  floor.  If  it  is  a  rough  floor,  use  the 
following  recipe  after  washing  as  described:  dissolve  10 
cents'  worth  of  glue  in  1  quart  of  warm  water ;  after  it  has 
soaked  12  hours  add  1  quart  of  warm  water,  and  2  Ibs.  or 
enough  yellow  ochre  to  make  it  the  consistency  of  cream ; 
apply  to  the  floor  while  warm.  When  dried,  hard  oil  the 
floor.  Another  very  good  recipe  for  an  ordinary  good  floor 
is,  after  washing  as  described,  to  oil  with  crude  oil,  turpen- 
tine, and  stain.  The  proportion  is  1  cup  or  1  pint  of  tur- 
pentine to  2  quarts  of  oil,  and  enough  burnt  umber  or  other 
stain  to  give  the  desired  color.  After  this  has  dried  rub 
over  with  common  furniture  varnish  reduced  to  about  the 
consistency  of  thin  cream.  This  is  neither  difficult  to  do 
nor  expensive,  and  if  a  class  of  girls  could  be  interested  in 
fitting  up  such  a  room;  it  would  be  both  a  practical  and 
valuable  lesson  for  them. 


396  HANDBOOK   OF    DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Parlor  Furniture.  —  To  impress  upon  the  minds  of  the 
pupils  what  is  meant  by  hygienic  cleanliness,  and  the  feel- 
ing of  restfulness  that  comes  from  living  in  an  absolutely 
clean  and  sweet  home,  there  should  be  as  few  stuffed  pieces 
of  furniture,  curtains,  and  doilies  as  possible.  The  writer 
has  in  mind,  among  other  things,  covered  wooden  boxes 
redolent  with  the  odor  of  dust.  These  things  do  not  keep 
really  "clean  more  than  a  few  weeks.  And  unless  the  covers 
can  be  easily  slipped  off  and  washed,  they  give  the  room,  an 
untidy  appearance. 

Most  of  the  furniture  could  be  made  of  boxes  by  the 
students.  Of  course  it  would  be  necessary  to  buy  the  larger 
pieces. 

Rugs  and  Carpets.  —  The  parlor  should  have  a  light-weight 
rug  upon  the  centre  of1  the  floor,  or  several  mats.  The  mats 
could  be  made  of  remnants  of  carpets  finished  at  the  ends 
with  fringe.  Ingrain  carpet  would  be  best  to  use,  as  the 
other  kinds  are  too  heavy  to  handle  easily,  and  too  expen- 
sive. There  is  a  kind  of  hemp  carpet  that  is  very  durable 
and  only  costs  about  35  cts.  a  yard,  which  would  make 
either  a  good  rug  or  mats. 

The  children  could  make  rag  mats  by  braiding  strips  of 
cloth  collected  from  their  friends,  or  the  friends  of  the 
school.  It  should  be  torn  into  strips  as  class  work,  and 
the  strips  sewed  together  at  home  and  wound  into  balls. 
The  lesson  in  braiding  could  be  given  in  the  school  and  the 
work  finished  if  necessary  in  their  homes.  The  braids 
could  then  be  sewed  round  a  centrepiece  as  a  part  of  their 
school  work.  Eed  and  black  strips  make  a  pretty  rug. 

A  drawn  mat  is  not  hard  to  make,  and  when  properly 
snipped  is  very  pretty.  Simple  designs  can  be  bought 
which  can  be  used  as  a  lesson  in  colors. 

Settees.  —  A  settee  could  be  very  easily  made  by  fastening 
together  securely  at  their  ends  two  cracker,  or  other  long 


TO   TURN   A   SCHOOLROOM   INTO   A   WORKSHOP      397 

boxes ;  and  making  a  wooden  cover  for  the  top  fastened 
on  with  either  hinges,  or  pieces  of  leather  about  one  inch 
wide  and  three  inches  long.  If  leather  is  used,  there  should 
be  two  strips  for  each  hinge.  They  should  be  fastened  on 
the  box  so  that  one  end  of  the  strip  comes  under  the  lid  and 
the  other  end  outside  of  the  box.  The  second  piece  should 
be  nailed  close  to  the  first  only  reversed  as  to  the  position  of 
the  ends.  One  end  should  be  fastened  on  the  outside  of  the 
lid  and  the  other  end  inside  of  the  box.  This  will  prevent 
the  lid  from  slipping  out  of  position.  The  inside  of  the  box 
and  lid  should  be  lined  with  a  dark-colored  cambric  to  match 
the  ground  color  of  the  outside  covering.  Cut  a  long  strip 
of  the  lining  about  1^  inches  deeper  than  the  box  and  long 
enough  to  allow  some  fulness  at  the  corners ;  sew  this 
around  a  piece  of  cambric  just  big  enough  to  fit  the  bottom ; 
place  this  in  the  box  and  tack  the  edge  around  the  outside 
of  the  box.  Line  the  lid  with  a  straight  piece,  bringing  the 
edges  over  the  outside.  If  unfigured  goods  is  used  for  the 
outside  of  the  box,  it  can  be  drawn  over  the  sides  and  ends 
in  plaits  or  folds  and  fastened.  Or  if  figured,  it  should  be 
put  on  either  as  a  plaited  ruffle  or  plain.  The  top  can  be 
stuffed,  or  a  long  flat  mattress  like  a  cushion  be  made  for  it, 
having  a  narrow  ruffle  to  fall  over  the  edge.  Plain  square 
and  rather  flat  cushions  might  be  placed  against  the  wall  to 
form  a  back. 

Chair.  — A  chair  can  be  made  by  screwing  or  nailing  two 
upright  pieces  of  wood  on  the  opposite  ends  of  a  square  box 
placed  bottom  up  unless  it  has  a  cover.  The  pieces  must  be 
placed  to  slant  at  a  slight  angle  from  the  corners  of  the  box 
and  connected  at  their  upper  ends  by  a  wide  piece  of  board. 
The  uprights  and  back  can  be  sandpapered,  oiled,  and  var- 
nished, the  seat  stuffed,  and  the  whole  bottom  of  the  chair,  or 
box,  covered  with  cretonne.  The  ruffle  round  the  chair  could 
be  fastened  with  brass-headed  tacks.  A  very  good  descrip- 


398  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

tion  of  this  furniture  can  be  found  in  the  June  number  of 
the  Ladies'  Home  Journal  for  1898. 

Mantle  Shelf.  —  A  piece  of  board  rounded  at  the  ends  and 
fastened  to  the  wall  with  iron  brackets  makes  a  pretty 
mantle  shelf.  A  piece  of  box  can  be  used.  Either  paint, 
varnish,  or  cover  with  some  pretty,  cheap  material. 

Bookshelves.  —  Some  pupil  whose  father  has  a  grocery 
store  might  be  induced  to  bring  some  small  boxes  of  uni- 
form size  for  a  bookcase.  Perhaps  another  pupil  could  get 
her  father  to  plane  the  sides.  Or  the  student  could  rub 
them  smooth  with  coarse  sandpaper,  using  what  is  called 
No.  1-J-.  If  a  smooth  surface  is  desired,  rub  the  last  time 
with  finer  sandpaper.  Oil  with  the  crude  oil  and  turpentine 
mixed  according  to  the  recipe  for  the  floor.  If  three  or 
four  coats  of  oil  are  put  on  before  the  varnish,  it  will  give  a 
soft  velvety  finish.  Of  course  each  coat  must  be  dry  before 
another  is  put  on.  Use  either  a  brush  or  piece  of  soft  cloth. 
It  is  well  to  mix  a  little  starch  or  white  filling  in  the  oil  for 
the  first  coaij^  especially  if  the  wood  is  soft  pine.  In  adding 
the  coloring  or  burnt  umber  to  the  oil,  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  pine  turns  dark  with  age,  and  therefore  should 
be  quite  light  when  finished.  This  work  seems  hard,  but 
the  writer  has  always  found  the  pupils  not  only  willing,  but 
anxious,  to  help  in  making  such  things.  It  is  a  good  lesson 
because  they  use  both  their  brains  and  hands.  If  whoever 
superintends  this  work  can  use  simple  tools,  or  if  not,  can 
take  a  few  lessons  in  the  use  of  such  tools  as  are  needed,  the 
students  can  make  nearly  all  the  furniture.  All  that  would 
be  needed  are :  hand-saw,  hammer,  hatchet,  rule,  pencil,  nails, 
tacks,  sandpaper,  brass-headed  tacks,  boxes,  iron  brackets,  a 
piece  of  soft  thin  leather,  thread,  scissors,  needles,  cloth,  and 
•thimble.  Certainly  these  are  not  very  costly  articles,  con- 
sidering the  lessons  taught. 

Table,  —  A  small  round  table  can  be  made  with  the  lids 


TO   TURN   A   SCHOOLROOM   INTO   A   WORKSHOP      399 

of  a  butter  firkin,  using  broom  handles  for  the  legs,  and 
covering  the  top  with  felt  and  fringe.  A  small  square  box 
covered  with  a  piece  of  carpet  or  cretonne  makes  a  pretty 
stool. 

Dining-room  Rugs.  —  Cover,  the  dining-room  floor  with  a 
crumb  cloth,  either  bought  ready-made,  or  made  of  striped 
furniture  linen  or  plain  dark  blue  denim.  The  latter  makes 
a  pretty  covering  for  the  centre  of  the  floor,  also  as  a  border 
with  a  centrepiece  of  either  matting  or  carpeting,  as  a  rug. 

Sideboard.  —  Make  a  small  closet  or  sideboard  by  placing 
a  small  long  box  endwise  upon  the  end  of  a  larger  box.  If 
these  cannot  be  planed,  oiled,  and  varnished,  they  should  be 
sandpapered  and  painted  both  inside  and  outside.  A  dark 
red  is  pretty,  though  white  enamel  paint  could  be  used.  At 
least  two  coats  of  paint  should  be  put  on  to  hide  the  natural 
roughness  of  the  wood.  Shelves  should  be  put  into  each 
box,  and  curtains  hung  in  front  of  the  larger  box,  on  a  brass 
rod. 

Bedroom 

Bed.  —  For  the  bedroom  get  a  narrow  white  iron  bedstead. 
This  would  be  light  and  easy  to  move  by  the  girls  in  such  a 
small  room. 

Dressing-table.  —  The  dressing-table  may  be  made  by 
covering  a  large  dry  goods  box  with  white  dotted  Swiss 
muslin  over  a  bright  covering  of  cambric  ruffled  on.  Green 
is  pretty  and  clean  looking.  Some  pretty  toilet  articles 
arranged  on  the  top  would  serve  as  an  object-lesson. 

A  looking  glass  could  be  hung  on  the  wall,  and  dotted 
muslin,  lined  with  green,  draped  over  it,  extending  to  the 
ends  of  the  dressing  table  and  forming  a  canopy  at  the  top. 
This  should  be  either  fastened  to  the  walls  or  to  a  wooden 
supporter  fastened  to  the  wall  by  means  of  an  iron  bracket ; 
and  extending  forward  over  the  looking  glass  and  table.  Of 


400  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

course  each  teacher  must  use  her  own  judgment,  as  in  other 
matters,  about  the  colors  to  be  used. 

If  the  students  have  had  lessons  in  sloyd,  they  may  be 
able  to  put  one  or  two  shelves  in  the  box  and  use  it  for  a 
linen  closet.  Finish  the  inside  with  sandpaper  and  two  or 
three  coats  of  white  paint.  The  paint  is  not  expensive,  and 
can  be  bought  ready  for  use. 

Washstand.  —  A  washstand  can  be  made  of  another  smaller 
box.  Plane  or  sandpaper  and  paint  white,  especially  the 
inside  and  top.  The  first  coat  should  be  flat  paint  and  the 
last  white  enamel.  Drape  with  dotted  white  Swiss  over 
colored  cambric  to  match  the  bureau;  and  cover  the  top 
with  heavy  white  linen  hemstitched. 

Kitchen. — The  kitchen  should  not  be  crowded  with  furni- 
ture if  good  work  is  expected.  A  stove,  table,  chairs,  and 
closets  are  all  that  are  needed. 

Stoves.  —  The  gas  companies  of  some  large  cities  will 
supply  any  housekeeper  with  a  good  gas  stove,  which,  when 
a  certain  amount  of  gas  has  been  used,  becomes  the  property 
of  the  consumer.  In  this  case  it  would  belong  to  the  pchool. 
It  might  be  very  easy  to  make  such  an  arrangement  for  both 
the  laundry  and  kitchen. 

Table.  —  A  plain  wooden  table  about  4  ft.  long  with  a 
drawer  .in  it  would  be  quite  large  enough.  If  desirable,  a 
large  dry  goods  box  can  be  made  into  a  table  by  sand- 
papering and  painting  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  boxes. 
Only  do  not  paint  the  top,  cover  it,  and  the  ends  if  desirable, 
with  white  enamel  cloth.  Put  a  gingham  curtain  in  front 
and  use  the  inside  for  a  closet.  A  shelf  can  be  easily  put  in 
by  nailing  some  wooden  cleats  on  the  inside  and  placing 
boards  that  are  long  enough  for  the  box  upon  them.  Such 
a  table  was  planned  by  the  writer  for  the  teachers  in  the 
county  colored  schools  of  the  South  who  were  anxious  to 
help  their  people  to  a  better  way  of  living  by  teaching  the 


TO   TURN   A   SCHOOLROOM   INTO   A   WORKSHOP      401 

children  in  their  one-roorned  schoolhouse  how  to  cook  such 
food  as  they  can  get. 

Closets.  —  The  closets  could  be  made  of  boxes.  But  a 
larger  one  can  be  made  of  matched  boards  by  a  carpenter 
for  about  $10.  It  is  not  an  extravagance,  as  it  is  very 
essential  to  have  a  good  closet  that  can  be  locked. 

Ice  Box.  —  It  is  also  possible  to  make  a  very  good  ice  box 
by  lining  a  box  with  zinc,  and  boring  a  hole  in  the  bottom 
and  also  one  near  the  top.  The  box  must  be  placed  upon 
legs  and  have  a  good  cover,  which  should  be  zinc  lined.  Of 
course,  while  it  might  teach  a  lesson  of  what  can  be  done,  yet 
the  girls  would  hardly  be  strong  enough  to  make  the  box 
themselves.  It  would  have  to  be  done  by  a  man  or  some 
strong  boys. 

Laundry.  —  For  the  laundry  all  that  is  really  needed  is  a 
bench  long  enough  to  hold  two  or  three  tubs,  a  stool  or  short 
bench  for  the  tub  that  should  be  placed  near  the  stove ;  one 
or  two  chairs ;  a  solid  table ;  and  an  ironing  board  to  stretch 
either  from  chair  to  chair,  or  from  the  back  of  one  chair  to 
the  table.  The  smaller  articles  necessary  are  5,  6,  and  7  Ib. 
irons,  two  polishing  irons,  iron  stands,  shirt  and  sleeve 
boards,  one  two-quart  agate  saucepan,  dishpan,  long  spoon, 
pail,  small  round  boiler,  clothes  stick,  washboard,  large 
dipper,  blanket  sheet,  iron  holder.  The  light  tubs,  costing 
about  50  cents  each,  are  better  than  those  that  are  heavier 
and  more  expensive.  They  will  last  about  as  long  and  are 
not  too  heavy  to  lift.  In  furnishing  a  school  laundry,  or 
school  kitchen,  light-weight  small  things  are  better  than 
large  and  unwieldy  ones,  which  are  not  easily  handled  by 
the  students.  Things  should  be  cooked  in  such  small 
quantities  in  a  school  that  only  small  utensils  are  needed. 

Laundry  Table.  —  The  laundry  table  can  be  made  either  by 
the  students,  of  a  large  box,  or  by  a  carpenter,  If  made  by 
the  students,  a  large  box  should  be  used,  shelves  placed  in  it, 

2D 


402  HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

and  a  curtain  hung  across  the  front.  The  writer  has  such  a 
table  made  by  a  carpenter.  The  top  is  of  heavy  wood  hav- 
ing solid  ends,  with  a  partition  running  through  the  centre 
from  end  to  end.  The  sides  are  divided  into  compartments 
with  shelves.  One  or  more  of  the  compartments  having  no 
shelves  are  used  for  larger  articles,  as  long  bottles,  basket, 
wringer.  The  compartments  serve  as  a  closet  in  which  all 
small  articles  common  to  a  laundry  can  be  kept ;  also  the 
clothes  which  the  girls  have  washed  and  which  they  will  iron 
during  their  next  lesson.  If  the  stove  is  large  enough,  part 
of  the  girls  can  iron  while  the  others  are  washing.  Two  gas 
stoves  can  be  used  in  the  laundry :  one  large  enough  to  put 
a  round  wash-boiler  upon  it;  or  a  double  stove  would  be 
better,  as  it  would  allow  room  for  the  kettle  at  the  same 
time  the  boiler  is  on ;  and  another  stove,  with  an  attach- 
ment for  irons,  for  the  girl  who  irons  the  articles  which 
have  been  washed  during  the  previous  lesson. 

Brush  Box.  —  A  very  convenient  box  for  dustpans,  brushes, 
etc.,  can  be  made  by  using  a  box  with  a  lid,  as  a  varnish  or 
cracker  box,  sandpapering,  oiling,  and  varnishing;  or  by 
putting  on  several  coats  of  paint.  It  is  better  to  simply  oil 
with  crude  oil  the  tops  of  tables  and  benches  and  any  sur- 
faces that  are  to  be  used  for  work  where  hot  water  or 
grease  is  liable  to  be  spilled,  or  such  as  have  to  be 
washed  frequently.  No  filling  or  varnish  should  be  put  in 
the  oil. 

In  a  room  divided  as  this  would  be,  large  classes  would 
be  impracticable.  It  is  well  to  have  the  pupils  alternate  in 
their  work  from  lesson  to  lesson.  Let  those  who  cook  the 
small  lunch  to-day  set  the  table  and  take  charge  of  the 
dining  room  in  the  next  lesson ;  so  with  the  bedroom  and 
laundry.  As  unused  things  will  grow  soiled  from  handling 
and  dust,  there  will  be  plenty  of  chance  to  use  the  laundry 
for  the  ordinary  linen  of  a  household.  This  arrangement 


TO   TURN   A   SCHOOLROOM   INTO   A   WORKSHOP      403 

will  allow  several  girls  for  each,  room,  and  also  give  them  a 
chance  to  do  some  sewing,  as  keeping  up  the  stock  of  towels, 
bed  linen,  etc. 

There  are  so  many  ways  in  which  girls  can  be  made  to 
feel  that  they  are  keeping  house,  with  all  the  ordinary  inter- 
ests of  a  housekeeper  whose  life  is  full  of  thoughts  of  the 
home  and  the  influence  it  has  for  good  on  those  who  come 
in  contact  with  it. 

After  the  room  has  been  selected  and  the  partitions  put 
up,  the  girls  might  take  their  first  lesson  in  furnishing.  A 
blackboard  is  very  necessary,  and  should  be  placed  in  either 
the  kitchen  or  laundry.  The  girls  could  go  there  each 
morning  for  the  general  outline  of  their  work,  also  for  any 
remarks  to  be  copied  or  remembered. 

It  must  be  remembered  in  furnishing  a  room  like  this  that 
it  should  be  done  with  taste  and  simplicity;  that  stuffed 
things  grow  rapidly  dingy,  and  have  to  be  replaced;  that 
children  should  not  only  be  taught  to  work  well  and  neatly, 
but  the  general  air  of  the  whole  apartment  should  be  so 
sweet  and  fresh  that  their  senses  would  become  accustomed 
to  it  and  miss  it.  This  cannot  be  obtained  in  a  room 
crowded  with  furniture,  nor  if  it  is  of  a  kind  that  will  grow 
soiled  and  musty  and  cannot  be  washed. 

As  a  last  remark  the  writer  wishes  to  say  that  she  has 
tested  the  statements  made  in  this  chapter,  and  knows  that 
the  work  given  is  perfectly  practicable. 

If  small  classes  are  impracticable,  then  either  larger  rooms 
must  be  provided,  or  else  the  same  space  must  be  divided 
into  smaller  rooms.  Therefore  Diagrams  III.— V.  are  sub- 
mitted in  the  hope  that  they  may  prove  of  use. 

Besides  the  gas  range  provided  for  in  the  kitchen,  and 
the  round  gas  stove  for  the  wash-boiler  in  the  laundry,  there 
should  be  provision  made  for  several  small  stoves.  Either 


404 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


a  table,  a  long  narrow  box,  or  a  shelf  could  be  used.  The 
box,  if  used,  should  be  either  sandpapered  and  varnished, 
or  painted  to  look  neat,  and  fastened  so  that  it  will  stand 
securely  on  the  ground. 

A  shelf  of  heavy  wood  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches 
wide  and  long  enough  to  hold  two  or  more  stoves  could  be 


/                            1 

i 

•— 

LAUNDRY      |~ 

1                KITCHEN 

. 

STOVE 

J  SHELVES 

,. 

LAUNDRY  STOVE 

KITCHEN  STOVE 
'  '                             ^          \ 

i 

PARLOR 

BED  ROOM 

STORE 

j 

, 

DINING  ROOM 

ROOM       ? 

i 

ii. 

S                                                      ,      5ft.          , 

i 

*  -25-ffc  *j 

DIAGRAM  III 

fastened  to  the  wall.  It  should  be  made  either  stationary 
or  to  fold  down.  If  stationary,  the  space  between  the  shelf 
and  floor  could  be  enclosed  and  used  as  a  closet.  The  shelf 
should  not  be  more  than  twenty-eight  inches  from  the 
ground.  The  top  should  be  covered  with  zinc :  and  the  wall 
faced  up  from  the  shelf  about  eighteen  inches.  This  should 
be  done  as  much  for  cleanliness  as  safety. 


TO   TURN  A   SCHOOLROOM   INTO   A   WORKSHOP      405 

If  gas  stoves  are  used,  they  should  be  screwed  to  the  table 
by  means  of  holes  bored  through  the  feet. 

If  oil  stoves  are  used,  a  band  of  zinc  about  one  and  one- 
half  inches  wide,  with  the  top  edge  turned,  should  be 
soldered  on  to  the  strips  of  zinc,  which  is  on  top  of  the  table 
or  shelf.  This  should  be  shaped  to  form  a  case  in  which  the 


=                    LAUND.RY 

•) 

I 

KITCHEN 

j 

m 

- 

X 

j 

' 

s                     PARLOR 

2 

BED  ROOM 

DINING  ROOM 

s 

/ 

\ 

i 

\ 

] 

«  1-5-ftT--            *  -12-ft7  4  13-ft;--           —  » 

ft  .  40-ft  .  *r*<  » 

i 
\ 

DIAGRAM  IV 

stove  can  stand.  The  case  should  be  made  to  fit  the  out- 
side of  the  stove  tightly  enough  to  hold  it  firmly  when 
placed  in  it  to  prevent  its  being  knocked  over  by  the 
children. 

The  writer  once  used  for  two  years  a  long  dining-room 
table  covered  with  white  enamel  cloth,  and  having  a  strip 
of  zinc  running  through  the  middle  lengthwise  with  cases 


406 


HANDBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


for  four  small  stoves.     With  these  four  small  stoves  and  an 
ordinary  range  in  a  small  room,  she  often  taught  classes  of 


--1-5-ft 


; 

» 

^t 

STORE  ROOM 

/                                                         GAS  STOVE 
/                                                                    FOR  WASH 

o  o  o  ol  ~DU"-t" 

TUBS  UPON  A  BENCH 

- 

^^ 

IRONING 
TABLE 

PARLOR 

LAUNDRY                    i— 

« 

OR 

AND 

SHELF 

a 

N 

BED  ROOM 
OR 
DINING  ROOM 

D              KITCHEN           FOR 
RANGE                                    STOVES  |_ 

ACCORDING  TO  THE  NECESSITIES 

OF  THE  LESSONS 

* 

KITCHEN  TABLE 

\ 

\ 

i 

— 1-5-ffc 


30ft. 

DIAGRAM  V 


twenty-five.     Nevertheless,  a  stove  for  each  student  is  the 
ideal  toward  which  all  should  strive. 


DIAGRAM  VI.  — Stove  Shelf 


TO   TURN   A   SCHOOLROOM   INTO   A   WORKSHOP      407 

If  this  shelf  is  made  to  turn  down,  the  strip  of  zinc  should 
be  made  to  fit  the  shelf  with  turned  edges  and  places  for 
screws,  so  that  it  can  be  removed  when  desirable ;  or  but- 
tons can  be  screwed  to  the  table  so  that  they  can  be  turned 
to  hold  the  strip  in  place.  Small  tin  ovens  can  be  bought 
that  fit  these  stoves,  and  in  which  very  good  work  can  be 
done.  A  class  of  fifteen  or  twenty  could  be  easily  managed 
with  three*  or  four  small  stoves  and  a  range. 

It  might  be  better  to  have  oil  stoves,  as  the  pipes  in  large 
buildings  are  often  too  small  to  allow  enough  gas  to  pass 
through  them  to  fully  supply  so  many  burners  through  sub- 
pipes.  With  several  such  small  stoves,  combined  with  the 
range  and  a  gas  stove  large  enough  to  heat  a  medium  sized 
round  wash-boiler,  one  fair  sized  room  could  be  used  for 
both  the  laundry  and  kitchen.  This  arrangement  would 
give  a  little  more  room,  save  the  expense  of  a  partition,  and 
be  a  little  easier  for  the  teacher. 

If  the  room  is  too  small  to  divide  as  described,  it  could  be 
divided  into  two  or  three  compartments,  keeping  one  for  the 
kitchen  and  laundry  during  the  whole  year,  and  using  the 
other  at  intervals  for  bedroom,  parlor,  and  dining  room. 
It  could  be  used  during  the  first  part  of  the  term  as  a  bed- 
room, next  as  a  parlor,  and  during  the  last  part  of  the  term, 
when  the  girls  know  more  about  cooking,  as  a  dining  room. 
It  would  of  course  be  necessary  to  change  some  of  the 
furniture  each  time.  In  this  case  a  storeroom  would  be 
needed.  It  might  be  well  to  consider  this  when  getting  the 
furniture,  so  that  some  of  it  could  be  used  for  all  three 
rooms. 


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